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Chapter 5: Discipline-Specific Recommendations

This chapter provides guidance for various disciplines in skydiving: formation skydiving; freeflying, freestyle and skysurfing; night jumping; water landings; canopy formations; high-altitude jumping; camera flying; wingsuit flying; canopy piloting; movement jumps; and speed skydiving. These guidelines will also assist you in meeting your skill and knowledge requirements for the USPA B, C, and D Licenses and USPA ratings.

5-1: Formation Skydiving

A. Introduction and Definition

Formation skydiving, traditionally called “relative work” or “group freefall,” is the intentional maneuvering of two or more skydivers in proximity to one another in freefall.

B. Training and Procedures

Before training for formation skydiving, each student should complete all the training and advancement criteria through Category F of the USPA Integrated Student Program.

Students should begin training for group freefall skills as soon as they complete Category F of the ISP. This encourages them to maintain their interest in skydiving, fosters relaxation in the air, develops coordination, establishes participation in group activities, and develops safe attitudes and procedures. Initial training should begin with no more than two jumpers—the trainee and a current USPA Coach or Instructor. Categories G and H of the ISP contain a recommended training outline for beginning group freefall skills.

C. Hazards Associated with Formation Skydiving

Mid-air collisions and funneled formations are not only undesirable but can be dangerous. Two bodies colliding in flight can cause severe injuries or death. The greatest danger exists when jumpers lose sight of each other and open their canopies independently, which may set the stage for a jumper in freefall to collide with an open canopy. Even after opening, if the jumpers do not follow proper safety procedures, they risk a canopy collision.

D. Breakoff Procedures

The minimum breakoff altitude for groups of five or fewer should be at least 1,500 feet higher than the highest planned deployment altitude in the group (not counting one camera flyer). For groups of six or more, minimum breakoff altitude should be at least 2,000 feet higher than the highest planned deployment altitude in the group.

Minimum breakoff altitude should be even higher than these recommendations for the following:

• groups with one or more jumpers of low experience
• jumpers with slower-opening or faster-flying canopies
• jumpers engaging in freefall activities that involve a fall rate faster than belly-to-earth terminal velocity
• jumps involving props, toys, or other special equipment, such as signs, banners, smoke, flags, hoops, tubes, items released in freefall, etc.
• jumps taking place over an unfamiliar landing area or in case of an off-field landing
• any other special consideration

At the breakoff signal or upon reaching the breakoff altitude, whichever comes first, each participant should turn 180 degrees from the center of the formation and flat track away to the planned deployment altitude. Jumpers can achieve a flat track by initiating with their legs, which will result in more horizontal separation than diving.

Before pulling, jumpers should perform a distinct wave-off to signal jumpers who may be above them. During the wave-off, look up, down, and to the sides to ensure that the area is clear. The low person has the right-of-way, both in freefall and under canopy.

5-2: Freeflying, Freestyle, and Skysurfing

A. Introduction and Definition

Freeflying refers to all activities that incorporate back, standing, head-down, or sitting freefall positions, including freestyle and skysurfing. These recommendations provide guidance for vertical freefall body positions, which are generally associated with high fall rates and rapid changes in relative speed. The diverse freefall speeds among jumpers engaged in different freefall activities affect separation between groups exiting on the same pass over the drop zone.

B. Qualifications

Before engaging in freeflying, you should hold a USPA license and have received freeflying instruction from a USPA instructional rating holder with extensive freeflying experience. Before freeflying, you should have demonstrated sufficient air skills, including:

• orienting to the line of flight of jump run
• maintaining consistent altitude awareness
• performing basic formation skydiving skills
• Proficiently performing basic backfly skills such as rotation and moving up, down, forward and backward prior to attempting head-up or head-down maneuvers
• tracking to achieve sufficient horizontal separation

C. Equipment

Freeflying poses specific potential equipment problems. A premature opening at the speeds involved in freeflying could injure you severely or stress your equipment beyond the manufacturer’s limits.

To prevent premature deployment of either canopy, properly secure your gear. Deployment systems and operation handles need to remain secure when you are flying at high speeds and in various orientations. Therefore, equipment for freeflying should include a bottom-of-container mounted, throw-out pilot-chute pouch or pull-out pilot chute with tuck tabs. USPA recommends against using a leg-strap-mounted pilot chute, which is an extreme hazard, as is any exposed pilot-chute bridle. Maintain and properly size your closing loops and ensure your pin protection flap and riser covers are in good shape and stay secure during freefall. Connect leg straps with a bungee to keep them from sliding to your knees while in a head-up freefall position or making transitions. Tightly stow excess leg and chest strap material. 

USPA recommends freeflyers use an AAD and an RSL with a MARD due to the increased potential for collisions and loss of altitude awareness.

When using skysurfing boards, use a board-release system that you can activate with either hand without bending at the waist.

Personal accessories for freeflying should include:

• audible altimeter (two are recommended)
• visual altimeter
• hard helmet
• clothing or jumpsuit that will remain in place during different orientations of freefall and will not obscure or obstruct deployment or emergency handles or altimeters

D. Training

Freeflying has many things in common with face-to-earth formation skydiving. A beginner will develop awareness and progress much faster and more proficiently with a coach. Novices should not jump with each other until receiving basic training in freeflying and demonstrating the ability to maintain a vertical axis and control movement up, down, forward and backward in a head-up position.

Prior to jumping with larger groups, progress should follow the same model as for the freefall and canopy formation disciplines: 2-way formations of novice and coach to develop exit, body position, docking, transition, and breakoff skills.

E. Hazards Associated with Group Freeflying

Inadvertently transitioning from a fast-falling body position to a slower, face-to-earth position is known as “corking” and results in rapid deceleration, typically from 175 mph to 120 mph. This could potentially lead to a high-speed freefall collision. To freefly safely in a group, you should be able to consistently remain in a vertical position at all times and remain clear of other freeflyers’ airspace. During breakoff, clear airspace above, below, and behind.

When learning freeflying from a belly-to-earth background, it can be easy to lose altitude awareness. From 13,000 feet, a belly-to-earth jump is approximately 60 seconds while the freefall time of a freefly jump may be as short as 40 seconds. Also, the vertical freefall body positions can make visual altimeters difficult to see. Depending on the helmet used, audible altimeters may also be hard to hear with the increased wind speed of the vertical position. As with any other skydiving discipline, participants must be diligent in maintaining altitude awareness.

Novice freeflyers often drift in various directions in freefall. Prior to each jump, freeflyers should note jump run as well as landmarks perpendicular to jump run in order to set up facing off the line of flight (90 degrees to jump run). This is especially important for solo freeflyers. An experienced coach can identify whether a participant is drifting and provide guidance. Experienced freeflyers must be aware of drifting when coaching or performing dives involving horizontal movement (see Chapter 5-10, Movement Jumps).

Freeflyers must consider wind drift, as well as their drift from body position, to provide adequate separation between groups. As a general rule, faster-falling groups should exit the aircraft after slower-falling groups. Vertical freefall groups should stay upwind to allow clear canopy airspace for groups exiting prior.

Important planning considerations to address these hazards include:

• Get a briefing from an instructor experienced in freeflying.
• Consider getting a coach and mentor early in your progression.
• Ensure your equipment is “freefly friendly.”
• Utilize both visual and audible altimeters.
• Keep the size of the groups small until proficient.
• Plan higher breakoffs than usual.
• Gradually transition from a fast fall-rate to tracking position for separation in case a skydiver is above the formation in a vertical position
• Avoid maneuvers near breakoff that increase separation and level changes from the group.
• Not only gain separation from other jumpers, but also slow down after breakoff to ensure normal freefall speeds for deployment.

5-3: Night Jumps

A. Introduction and Definition

Night jumps can be challenging, educational, and fun, but they require greater care on the part of the jumper, pilot, spotter, and ground crew. As with all types of skydiving, night jumping can be safer with special training, suitable equipment, pre-planning, and good judgment.

Every skydiver, regardless of experience, should participate in night-jump training to learn or review:

• techniques for avoiding disorientation
• use of identification light, lighted instruments, and flashlight
• target lighting
• ground-to-air communications
• emergency procedures

Any jumps made between official sunset and official sunrise are considered night jumps. Jumpers must maintain safety and comply with FAA regulations using this definition. However, night jumps to meet license requirements and to establish world records must take place between one hour after official sunset and one hour before official sunrise.

B. Qualifications

Skydivers participating in night jumping should meet all the requirements for a USPA B or higher license. Participants should complete a comprehensive briefing and drill immediately before the intended night jump. A USPA S&TA, Examiner, or Instructor who has completed at least two night jumps should conduct this training. This official should sign and document the training, including the date and location, in the jumper’s logbook.

C. Hazards Associated with Night Jumps

Night jumps can present new and unusual situations, and jumpers must approach this challenge with caution because darkness greatly impairs vision and depth perception, causing the opportunity for disorientation, a different appearance of the earth’s surface, and a lack of familiar reference points. You should be thoroughly familiar with the effects of hypoxia (oxygen deprivation) on night vision found in the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) online at faa.gov. One of the first effects of hypoxia, evident as low as 5,000 feet, is loss of night vision. It takes approximately 30 minutes to recover from the effects of hypoxia. Smokers suffer the effects of hypoxia sooner than non-smokers. Carbon monoxide from exhaust fumes, deficiency of vitamin A in the diet, and prolonged exposure to bright sunlight all degrade night vision.

Night vision requires 30 minutes to fully adjust. A jumper’s own shadow cast by the moon can resemble another jumper below and cause confusion. Skydivers infrequently make night jumps and are less familiar with and less proficient in handling themselves under the conditions of this new environment. Since the skydiver cannot perceive what is taking place as rapidly and easily as in daylight, it takes more time to react to each situation.

D. Special Equipment

For protection from aircraft, the FAA requires night jumpers to have a light visible for at least three statute miles displayed from opening until the jumper is on the ground. USPA recommends using constant-beam lights rather than strobes, which can interfere with night vision and depth perception. Constant lights are preferable, but jumpers can use flashing lights once they open and are in full control of their canopies. Road flares and other pyrotechnics exude hot melted chemicals while burning and are hazardous when skydivers in freefall use them. In addition, the glare greatly increases the possibility of disorientation.

Additional equipment recommendations include a lighted altimeter, clear goggles, and a flashlight or light on a helmet pointing up to facilitate checking the canopy. A bright LED pointed at the canopy during the entire canopy descent illuminates the parachute for other jumpers, greatly decreasing the chance of a canopy collision. Night jumpers often carry a whistle to warn other jumpers under canopy, signal other jumpers after landing, and to aid rescuers in locating a lost or injured jumper.

Turn your AAD off and back on before beginning night jumps to ensure it is within the time-frame operational limits for the night jump. Drop zone staff should have and check the manifest after night jumps to ensure all jumpers landed safely.

The landing area should contain sufficient lighting—provided by flashlights, electric lights, or similar devices—to illuminate the target. Open flames can be extremely hazardous, so do not use road flares or other pyrotechnics. Car headlights may be used for lighting; however, vehicles clutter the landing area.

E. Procedures

Skydivers should conduct night jumps in light winds and only in clear atmospheric conditions with minimal clouds. Moonlight greatly increases visibility and night-jump safety. USPA recommends jumping during a full moon when conducting group freefall skydives at night. Skydivers should wear white or light-colored jumpsuits.

The BSRs require that you consult the local S&TA or a USPA Examiner for advice for conducting night jumps. Additionally, you may need to notify FAA, state, and local officials as required. Use a topographical map or photo with FAA Flight Service weather information for appropriate altitude and surface winds to compute jump-run compass heading and exit and opening point. One senior member should be designated as jumpmaster for each pass and be responsible for accounting for all members of that pass once everyone has landed. Each jumper performing a night jump who is not familiar with the drop zone should make at least one jump during daylight hours on the same day to become familiar with the drop zone and surrounding areas.

To configure your target for accuracy, arrange lights in a circle around the target area at a radius of 82 feet (25 meters) from the center. Remove three or four of the lights closest to the wind line on the downwind side of the target and arrange them in a line leading into the target area. This will indicate both wind line and wind direction. By following a flight path over this line of lights, the jumper will be on the wind line and land upwind. Place a red light protected by a plexiglass cover at dead center, flush with the surface. In case of emergency, adverse weather or other hazardous jump conditions, extinguish all lights to indicate “no jump.” Ground-to-air radio communications should be available.

Current wind information for both surface and aloft conditions is critical at night to ensure a proper spot. Spotters should familiarize themselves with the drop zone and surrounding area in flight during daylight, noting ground points that will display lights at night and their relationship to the drop zone and any hazardous areas. The spotter should plan to use both visual spotting and aircraft instruments to assure accurate positioning of the aircraft. During the climb to altitude, familiarize each jumper with the night landmarks surrounding the drop zone.

F. Group Jumps: Freefall and Canopy

A person’s first night jump should be solo. On subsequent night jumps, they can make group skydives, starting with a 2-way and then gradually progressing to larger formations. Jumpers should consider staggering their deployment altitudes to reduce the risk of a canopy collision both during deployment and during the canopy descent and landing pattern. When staggering deployments, the jumpers with the lowest wing loadings should deploy at the highest altitude and jumpers should continue in order by wing loading until the jumpers with the highest wing loadings deploy at the lowest altitude.

Once under canopy with others in the air, jumpers should fly predictably and avoid spiraling turns. All jumpers on each pass should agree to the same downwind, base, and final approach and the altitudes for turns to each leg of the landing pattern. Jumpers planning canopy formations should practice together during daylight and rehearse before boarding for each night jump. USPA recommends that skydivers participate in night canopy formations during a full moon. All jumpers should wear brightly colored clothing.

5-4: Water Landings

A. Introduction and Purpose

Accidental water landings have caused a number of fatalities, usually because the jumper did not use flotation gear, used incorrect procedures, or landed in extremely cold water. USPA recommends water-landing training to improve chances for survival from both intentional and unintentional water landings.

The purpose of wet training (required for the USPA B license) is to expose the individual to a worst-case scenario in a controlled situation. Proper training should decrease the likelihood of panic, which should decrease the likelihood of drowning since drowning is usually brought on by panic.

Unintentional water entry may occur due to spotting error, radical wind changes, malfunctions, and landing under a reserve rather than a main. Intentional water jumps are preplanned jumps into a body of water.

B. Training for Unintentional Water Landings

The ISP includes training recommendations for unintentional water landings in the obstacle-landing training of Category A (the first-jump course). Chapter 4-1G contains a more complete and detailed briefing outline.

Dry (Theoretical Training)

A USPA S&TA, Examiner, or Instructor should sign documentation of this training, including the date and location, in the jumper’s logbook and A-license application or on a separate statement.

Theoretical training should include classroom lessons covering:

• techniques for avoiding water hazards
• how to compensate for poor depth perception over water
• preparation for water entry
• additional risks of water landings in cold water temperatures
• recovery after landing

Practice should combine both ground and training-harness drills and should continue until the jumper is able to perform the procedures in a realistic timeframe.

Wet (Practical Training)

After taking a class on theory, jumpers should undergo practical training in a suitable environment such as a swimming pool, lake, or other body of water at least six feet deep. This training meets the USPA B-License training requirements for intentional water landings and a USPA S&TA, Examiner, or Instructor should sign the documentation of it, including the date and location, in the jumper’s logbook.

Those conducting this training need to consider the safety of the participants. Safety personnel should include properly trained and certified lifeguards. If suitably qualified skydivers are not available, assistance may normally be solicited from the local American Red Cross or other recognized training organization. Flotation gear and other lifesaving apparatus is recommended for non-swimmers.

Participants may wear swimsuits for initial training but should wear normal jump clothing during final training to simulate water landings. For the non-swimmers, training should include basic skills covering breath control, bobbing, and front and back floating. For the swimmers, training should include all of the above, plus the breaststroke, sidestroke, backstroke, and treading water.

While wearing a parachute harness-and-container system and all associated equipment, the participant jumps into the water. The USPA Instructor should then cast an open canopy of any type over the jumper before any wave action subsides. The jumper should then perform the steps necessary to escape from the equipment and the water. Repeat this drill until proficient.

C. Procedures for Intentional Water Landings

Any person intending to make an intentional water landing should hold a USPA A license, have undergone wet training for water landings, and be a swimmer. They should also undergo preparatory training within 60 days of the water jump. A USPA S&TA, Examiner, or Instructor should conduct this training and sign and document the date and location in the jumper’s logbook.

Theoretical training should include classroom lessons covering:

• preparations necessary for safe oper­ations
• equipment to be used
• procedures for the actual jump
• recovery of jumpers and equipment
• care of equipment

In preparation, the BSRs require jumpers to obtain advice for the water jump from the local USPA S&TA or Examiner. Jumpers should also check the landing site for underwater hazards and use an altimeter for freefalls of 30 seconds or more.

Preparations should include no less than one recovery boat per jumper, or, if the aircraft drops one jumper per pass, one boat for every three jumpers. Boat personnel should include at least one qualified skydiver and stand-by swimmer with a face mask, swim fins, and experience in lifesaving techniques, including resuscitation.

Each jumper should receive a thorough briefing concerning the possible emergencies that may occur after water entry and the proper corrective procedures. Jumpers should open no lower than 3,000 feet AGL to provide ample time to prepare for water entry, especially when the landing area is a small body of water and the jumper must concentrate on both accuracy and water entry. A second jump run should not occur until all jumpers from the first pass are safely aboard the pickup boat(s).

In calm conditions with readily accessible pick-up boats, the best procedure is simply to inflate the flotation gear after canopy inflation and concentrate on landing in the proper area. In strong winds, choppy water conditions, in competitive water-jump events, or if the flotation gear cannot be inflated, separation from equipment after water entry is essential.

Water may damage some altimeters and automatic activation devices. When skydivers opt to jump without these standard instruments and AADs, they should use extra care.

D. Hazards Associated with High-Performance Water Landings

Although making high-performance landings over water may reduce injuries in cases of slight misjudgment, larger errors that cause the jumper to hit the water too hard will still cause serious injury or death. Jumpers should obtain coaching from an experienced high-performance canopy pilot familiar with high-performance landings across water prior to attempting them. Raised banks at the approach entry and exit from the body of water present a serious hazard. An injury upon landing in a water hazard can increase the jumper’s risk of drowning, so jumpers should approach high-performance landings involving water using the standard water-landing precautions, including the use of a flotation device. The area around the body of water should be clear of hazards and spectators in case high-speed contact with the water causes the jumper to lose control.

E. Water-Jump Safety Checks and Briefings

Jumpers should perform a complete gear check, paying particular attention to any additional equipment to be used or carried for the water jump (see more in Chapter 4-4).

Boat and ground crew briefings should include:

• communications procedures (smoke, radio, buoys, boats)
• wind limitations
• jump order
• control of spectators and other boats
• setting up the target
• maintenance of master log
• how to approach a jumper and canopy in the water (direction, proximity)

5-5: Canopy Formations

A. Introduction and Definition

Canopy Formation (CF) is the name of the competition discipline for the skydiving activity commonly called canopy relative work (CRW or “crew”) Jumpers build canopy formations by intentionally maneuvering two or more open parachute canopies near or in contact with one another during flight. The goal is smooth flow and grace between two or more jumpers and their canopies in flight. The most basic canopy formation is two canopies joined vertically during flight as a stack—where the jumper’s feet are docked at the top of the lines—or plane—where the jumper moves down the lines to secure the feet below the slider of the bottom jumper on the cross connectors (see equipment below).

Canopy formation specialists consider the recommendations in this section to be the safest, most predictable, and most productive procedures. Experienced canopy formation specialists should lead canopy formation jumps, whether they occur during the day or at night.

B. Qualifications

Before engaging in canopy formations, a jumper should have thorough knowledge of canopy-flight characteristics, to include riser maneuvers and the relative compatibility of various canopies. They should also have demonstrated accuracy capability of consistently landing within 16 feet of a target.

C. Equipment

The following items are essential for safely building canopy formations:

• hook knife—necessary for resolving entanglements
• ankle protection—adequate socks to prevent abrasion from canopy lines and no boots with hooks
• gloves for hand protection
• self-retracting or removable pilot-chute-bridle systems
• cross connectors— A secure foothold at the top of the risers is essential for building planes, which can develop greater tension as they grow larger. Cross connectors are a length of webbing attached between the front and rear risers only, not from side to side. Side-to-side cross connectors can snag on the reserve container during deployment and cause a dangerous entanglement.

The following items are strongly recommended for safely building canopy formations:

• visual altimeter to provide altitude information for dock, abort, and entanglement decisions
• protective headgear that allows adequate hearing of voice commands in addition to collision protection
• long pants and sleeves for protection from line abrasions
• extended or enlarged toggles to make grasping them easier
• cascades removed from the two center A lines, which should be marked in red

D. Training

Initial training should occur with two jumpers—the beginner and a canopy formation specialist—and include lessons in basic docking, breakoff procedures, and emergency procedures. The first few jumps should include only stacks and planes, as offset formations are less stable.

E. Procedures

Avoid jumping in turbulent air or gusty wind conditions. In areas subject to thermal turbulence and other unstable air conditions, jump in the early morning and early evening. Avoid passing near clouds, which are associated with unpredictable air conditions. Use caution in flying formations over plowed fields, paved surfaces, or other areas where thermal conditions often exist. When unexpectedly encountering bumpy or turbulent air, fly the formation directly into the wind.

Factors you must consider in every pre-jump briefing include:

• exit order
• time between exits
• length of freefall
• designation of base
• canopy wing loading and trim
• order of entry
• direction of flight and techniques of rendezvous
• approach and breakoff traffic patterns
• docking procedures
•  formation-flight procedures
•  one-word verbal commands
•  breakoff and landing procedures
•  emergency procedures

Spotting should account for upper-wind velocity and direction. Advise the pilot that a canopy formation group is exiting and opening high. Leave a minimum of two seconds of separation between exits. With greater experience and the use of staged openings, one-second separation may be possible but drastically increases the chance of collision when an off-heading canopy opening occurs. Any opening delay should be adequate to assure clearance from the aircraft, jumper separation, and stable body position at opening. Each jumper must be prepared to avoid a collision at any time upon leaving the aircraft.

When establishing docking procedures, identify the jumper who is the base. This position requires the most expertise; however, docking skills are used in all slots. All jumpers should discuss docking methods before boarding the aircraft.

During formation flight, it is important that the formation pilot maintain a constant direction of flight along a predetermined course and establish an orderly flight pattern for canopies attempting to dock, which will enable interference-free approaches and lessen the possibility of canopy collisions. No canopies should ever pass in front of a formation; the wake turbulence created will disturb the formation’s stability and could lead to a very dangerous situation.

For smoothness and safety when approaching the formation, approach on level with the dock and slightly behind by only a couple of feet. This also avoids imparting vertical energy into the formation, which can cause the wings on the other side to come around into the center of the formation. This type of approach is recommended for vertical formations, as well. Approaching from below is not recommended.

When docking, grasp only the center section of a docking canopy when the canopy closes third or later in a stack formation. To complete the stack dock, the top jumper should place both feet between both A lines of the center cell of the lower jumper and hook one by each instep. A center-cell dock is preferable for beginners.

Improper docks are the most common cause of collapsed canopies. You should release a collapsed canopy to allow reinflation only if it will not make the situation worse. To prevent dropping an entangled jumper into a potential collision, make sure the area behind and below is clear. Experienced participants may be able to reinflate a collapsed canopy by continuing to plane down the lines. The jumper with the collapsed canopy can try using brakes or rear risers to back the canopy off and reinflate it. A jumper wishing to be released from the formation should use the term “drop me.” This command is to be obeyed immediately, unless it will drop the jumper into a worse situation. The jumper issuing the command should be sure to check behind for other canopies on approach before asking to be dropped.

When in formation flight, verbal commands should be concise and direct, omitting non-essential conversation. The pilot should fly the formation with limited control movements to minimize oscillations and facilitate docking. The formation pilot should never use deep brakes in the formation. If a lower canopy is collapsing in a vertical formation, the jumper should slide his feet back up to the canopy for re-inflation or follow the agreed emergency procedures for the planned formation. Continuing to plane down the lines may end with the canopy completely collapsing and potentially causing entanglement.

Oscillations are a primary concern in canopy formations, because they can result in collapsed canopies and entanglements. To reduce their effect and frequency, jumpers in the formation can—

• maintain an arch for speed and stability especially for offset and diamond formations
• when on the bottom of the formation, sit still in the harness and cross their legs
• when on the bottom, apply the appropriate control to reduce or increase tension
• manipulate a lower jumper’s lines to dampen the oscillation
• drop the bottom jumper before the oscillation develops into something worse

Diamonds and offsets require different flying techniques than vertical formations. It is imperative to receive proper training before attempting them.

For breakoff and landing procedures, approaches and docking should stop no lower than 2,500 feet AGL. Formation pilots should avoid all obstacles, including suspected areas of thermal activity, such as paved surfaces, plowed fields, buildings, etc. Only those with a high level of CF proficiency should attempt to land canopy formations. Breakoff for landing should take place no lower than 2,500 feet AGL because of the danger of entanglement at breakoff time. Jumpers should not attempt to land formations in high or gusty winds, high density altitudes, or high field elevations. CF groups landing off the airport should try to land together.

For guidance on night canopy formations, see Chapter 5-3 Night Jumps.

F. Hazards and Emergency Procedures

Jumper-to-jumper collisions or hard docks that result in deflated canopies or entanglements can result in serious injury or death. Entanglements are the greatest hazards when building canopy formations. Jumpers should know their altitude at all times, because altitude will often dictate the course of action.

If a collision is imminent, you should not take canopy formation grips with any small diameter lines unless you are extremely knowledgeable and proficient on those particular canopies. Beside the danger of slicing into muscles and cutting through harness components, those lines and attachment points are not usually strong enough to withstand the loads that can occur in a docked formation. They are more susceptible to failure, possibly long after the dock has been dropped, potentially much lower than 2,500 feet. Avoid body-to-body contact at all cost, and hit lines or fabric instead. Attempt to clear the entanglement by following the risers out, peeling away fabric and lines while protecting your handles.

If the upper jumper is engulfed in the fabric of the lower jumper's canopy and is unable to disengage, the lower jumper should be instructed to cutaway first. The upper jumper should then clear their face and their controls from the canopy that was cut away and take control of their own canopy. It is safer to fly slowly and keep the cutaway canopy fabric on you than it is to try to clear it and risk having a line or lines snag on you, causing the other canopy to inflate and downplane or spin into your canopy.

If the upper jumper is entangled in the suspension lines of the lower jumper's canopy, under the bottom skin of that canopy, the upper jumper in the lines should cut away first. That jumper should clear lines and fabric from their body and three-rings to create a path down and out. The upper jumper should also disconnect the RSL (if worn and if time and altitude permits) in case the jumper does not clear the other lines immediately upon initiating cutaway procedures. Crossing your legs prior to cutting away can also prevent straddling cascaded lines or risers. Once clear of the entanglement, the jumper should pull the reserve immediately and not wait to gain stability, as it can take up to 1,000 feet to stop tumbling after a cutaway. If you cannot untangle, make only two attempts to clear the entangled canopy before deploying the reserve. The sooner the reserve is deployed, the more time and altitude you have available to prevent the cutaway canopy from interfering with control of the reserve.

Why upper jumper first? The entangled jumper needs the lower jumper to stay attached to that canopy to provide tension on the lines to allow the upper jumper to slide out of them. If the lower jumper performs cutaway procedures first, the upper jumper becomes hopelessly entangled in the lower jumper’s suspension lines while that canopy is temporarily released and re-inflates into a downplane.

If the cutaway canopy does not clear the lower jumper’s canopy, the lower jumper needs to wait at least 5 seconds before performing cutaway procedures. Once reserves are deployed, steer clear of the other jumper and the cutaway canopies.

Jumpers should try to land together following a canopy formation emergency.

5-6: High-Altitude Jumps

A. Introduction and Definition

A high-altitude skydive is a jump made at or above 15,000 feet mean sea level (MSL) but lower than 18,000 feet MSL. MSL is not to be confused with AGL (above ground level) or the drop zone’s elevation.

USPA does not provide recommendations for skydiving at and above 18,000 feet MSL since it is outside of sport-parachuting altitudes. Those who do opt to skydive at or above these altitudes should seek outside expertise and use specialized oxygen equipment. The jumpers must develop procedures for the specific jump or event, as well as procure specialized equipment and support.

Skydives from altitudes higher than 15,000 feet MSL present participants with a range of important considerations, since reduced atmospheric pressure, decreased partial pressure of oxygen, environmental factors including temperature, and higher winds greatly increase the level of risk.

B. Hazards and Hypoxia

According to FAR 91.211, each occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes at or above 15,000 feet MSL. Hypoxia is a medical condition that develops when there is not enough oxygen in the body's tissues and is the most immediate concern between 15,000 ft MSL and 18,000 ft MSL. Hypoxia can result in impaired judgment and motor function and eventually cause unconsciousness or even death. All participants involved in the jump will benefit from familiarization training that covers the oxygen equipment being used, aircraft drills, and information about the physiological conditions encountered when exposed to reduced atmospheric pressures. Undergoing hypoxia-recognition training that allows the simulation of objective and subjective signs and symptoms of hypoxia is also extremely beneficial.

C. Equipment

In the event of a malfunction in the primary oxygen system, a backup oxygen system should be available on board the aircraft. Each aircrew member and skydiver will have access to their own oxygen mask or nasal cannula, although a common central oxygen bottle and regulator system may be used as a supply.

D. Oxygen-Use Procedures

Warning: Oxygen explosively accelerates burning! To prevent damage to aircraft and equipment and injury to persons from oxygen-fed flash fires, the aircraft should be electrically grounded during all ground practice. No smoking should be permitted in the vicinity of the aircraft, either on the ground or aloft, while oxygen equipment is on board.

Oxygen-use procedures will vary with the equipment used, but the following are basic:

• All participants should don masks or nasal cannulas with a positive flow of oxygen prior to exceeding 15,000 feet MSL. Oxygen flow should be continuous throughout the remainder of the climb and jump run and should be monitored continuously via gauges or visual flow indicators. The aircraft operator should ensure sufficient oxygen supply for all exposures above 15,000 feet MSL, including supply for extended delays at altitude.
• Prior to exit, jumpers should stay on oxygen for as long as possible, removing their masks or cannulas at the “climb out” or “exit” signal. Participants should rehearse these procedures on the ground in order to ensure a safe climb to altitude and aircraft exit.
• In the event of an aborted jump run, all participants will ensure the re-donning of their own oxygen equipment, assist others and await further instructions from the aircrew.

5-7: Camera Flying

A. Introduction

Skydiving provides a wealth of visual inspiration that can be readily captured through still and video photography. Smaller and lighter cameras have made it easier and less expensive to take cameras on a jump, but jumpers still need to exercise caution with their camera equipment and its interaction with the parachute system throughout all activities on the jump, paying close attention to breakoff procedures and special emergency procedures for camera flyers. Only after a camera flyer has become completely familiar with the equipment and procedures of the discipline should they experiment and be creative.

USPA recommends that jumpers be licensed and have completed 200 jumps before jumping with a camera.

B. Background

Early pioneer camera flyers had to solve the obvious problems presented by big, cumbersome camera equipment and parachutes. Only the most experienced jumpers and photographers would brave the activity of filming others. More recently, miniature digital still and video cameras present less of a challenge, encouraging more jumpers to use cameras on their jumps. Skydivers have become less concerned about the skill of a camera flyer jumping with their group.

C. Purpose

Jumpers should realize that flying a camera—even a small one—requires additional effort and attention on each jump and should not take the decision to begin flying camera lightly. To support education for new camera flyers, the USPA Library offers an online course, Camera Flying Recommendations, at uspa.org/library.

D. Equipment

A camera flyer should consult another experienced camera flyer and a rigger before using any new or modified piece of equipment on a camera jump, including:

• helmet
• parachute
• deployment-device modification
• camera
• camera mount
• flash
• switch and mounting
• camera suit
• emergency release
•  other items such as sky surfboard or skis, tubes or other freefall toys, wingsuit

Prior to filming other skydivers, a camera flyer should jump with each new or additional piece of equipment until they are completely familiar with it and have adjusted any procedures accordingly.

Camera Equipment

Small cameras are not necessarily safer to jump than larger ones. Regardless of the location of the camera mount, users should place and rig them with respect to deploying parachutes. Camera flyers should cover, tape, or protect by other means all edges and potential snag areas. Snag points that cannot be mitigated on helmet-mounted cameras should at least face away from the deploying parachute. A pyramid shape of the entire camera-mounting system may deflect lines better than an egg shape. Deflectors can help protect areas that cannot otherwise be modified to reduce problems. All gaps between the helmet and equipment, including mounting plates, should be taped or filled. Protrusions, such as camera sights, should be engineered to present the least potential for snags. Test for these potential problems on the ground by dragging a suspension line over the camera assembly to reveal snag points.

Sharp edges and protrusions can injure other jumpers during a collision or emergency aircraft landing. During deployment, jumpers should make sure that any cameras mounted on their extremities are kept clear of the deploying canopy, lines, etc. Camera-operation devices such as switches and cables need to be simple and secure. Analyze each piece of added equipment for its potential interaction with the overall camera system and parachutes.

Helmets and Camera Mounts

A rigger or an experienced camera flyer should evaluate all camera platforms, whether custom or off the shelf, for safety and suitability to your purpose. The helmet should provide full visibility for the camera flyer in freefall and under canopy, but especially during emergency procedures. Cover and tape empty camera mounts to prevent snags.

Any camera helmet should have an emergency release that is easy to operate with either hand in case of entanglement. Use a reliable helmet closure or clasp that also functions as an emergency release.

Parachute

Camera flyers should use a reliable parachute that opens slowly and on heading. Those who use a camera suit need to ensure it is compatible with their deployment system. Camera-suit wings and lower connections must not interfere with the camera flyer’s parachute-operation handles or main-bridle routing in any freefall orientation. If using a camera suit, the pilot chute and bridle length must be sufficient to overcome the additional burble the suit creates. If the camera flyer generally opens higher than the other jumpers on the load, they may wish to use a slower descending canopy to help reduce traffic conflicts. As always, proper attention to packing and maintenance, especially line stows, helps prevent hard openings and malfunctions.

Recommended accessory equipment includes an audible altimeter, a visual altimeter that can be seen while filming, and a hook knife. USPA recommends camera flyers use an AAD and an RSL with a MARD.

E. Procedures

Prior to jumping with a camera, a skydiver should have enough general jump experience to be able to handle any skydiving emergency or minor problem easily. A camera flyer should possess well-above-average skills that are applicable to the discipline or activity planned for the jump.

USPA recommends that jumpers be licensed and have completed 200 jumps before jumping with a camera. The jumper should have made at least 50 recent jumps on the same parachute equipment to be used for camera flying and should know the experience and skills of all the jumpers in the group.

The deployment altitude should allow time to deal with the additional equipment and its associated problems. The camera flyer must remain aware of other jumpers during deployment.

Each camera flyer should conduct a complete camera- and parachute-equipment check before rigging up, after rigging up, before boarding the plane, and again prior to exit. They should approach camera jumps procedurally, following the same routine on every jump. The priorities on the jump should be the parachute equipment and procedures first, then the camera equipment and procedures. Introduce only one new variable—either procedure or equipment—at a time. A camera jump requires additional planning, and jumpers should never consider it to be just another skydive.

Aircraft

Camera flyers should wear or secure any camera during takeoff and landing to prevent it from becoming a projectile in the event of sudden movement. Be aware of the additional space a camera takes up, and practice climb-out procedures in each aircraft to prevent injury resulting from catching the camera on the door or other part of the aircraft. To prevent injury and damage to the aircraft, the camera flyer should coordinate with the pilot before attempting any new climb-out position.

Exit

Unless the plan calls for the camera flyer to be part of the exit, they should remain clear of the group, being mindful of the airspace opposite the exiting jumpers’ relative wind. Be aware that:

• Wearing a camera helmet can make collisions with other jumpers more serious.
• Student jumpers can become disoriented when unexpectedly encountering a camera flyer.
• A tandem parachutist in command requires clear airspace to deploy a drogue.
• Skydivers occasionally experience inadvertent openings on exit.

Freefall

Jumpers should prepare a freefall plan with the camera flyer to include the camera flyer’s position in relation to the group and any planned camera-flyer interaction with the group. The jumpers and the camera flyer should follow the plan.

All jumpers on the load should understand the camera flyer’s breakoff and deployment plan. Two or more camera flyers must coordinate the breakoff and deployment more carefully than when only one camera flyer is involved. Filming other jumpers through deployment should be planned in consideration of the opening altitudes of all the jumpers involved and with their cooperation. The camera flyer should maintain awareness of his or her position over the ground and deploy high enough to reach a safe landing area.

Deployment

The camera flyer must exercise increased caution during deployment to prevent malfunctions, assure an on-heading deployment, reduce the likelihood of line twists-, and avoid neck injury. New camera flyers should consult with experienced camera flyers for specific techniques to prevent accidents during deployment and inflation. Malfunction, serious injury, or death can occur if the lines of a deploying parachute become snagged on camera equipment.

Parachute Emergencies

The additional equipment worn for filming can complicate emergency procedures. Each camera flyer should regularly practice all parachute emergency procedures under canopy or in a training harness while fully rigged for a camera jump and should practice routine emergency procedures before every jump. Emergency-procedure practice should include removing the helmet with either hand in response to certain malfunctions. A camera flyer should release their helmet during equipment entanglements, obstacle landings (water, trees, building, power lines), and whenever a dangerous situation presents itself.

F. Considerations for Videoing Students

Refer to the Instructional Rating Manual for additional guidelines for flying camera for student training jumps. A skydiver should have extensive camera-flying experience with experienced jumpers prior to photographing or videoing student jumps, including at least 300 group freefall skydives and at least 50 jumps flying camera with experienced jumpers.

The USPA Instructor supervising the jump should conduct a thorough briefing with the camera flyer prior to boarding. The USPA Coach or Instructor, the camera flyer, and the student making the jump should all be aware of the procedures and the camera plan. The instructors’ full attention is supposed to be on the student, and the student is incapable of considering the movements and needs of the camera flyer.

The camera flyer should avoid the area directly above or below a student or instructor(s), because students may deploy without warning and because disturbing the student’s or instructors’ air could compromise their performance and the safety of the jumpers.

The camera flyer should plan an exit position that avoids contact with the student or the instructor(s). During the exit, students often give erratic exit counts, making exit timing difficult for the camera flyer. The camera flyer may leave slightly before the student exits when the count is reliable. The camera flyer should follow slightly after the student’s exit whenever the student’s exit timing is uncertain. When filming tandem jumpers, the camera flyer must remain clear of the deploying drogue

The camera flyer needs to maintain independent altitude awareness and never rely on the student or instructor(s). The camera flyer is responsible for opening separation from the student and the instructor(s). Although the footage may be dramatic, aggressive filming of openings compromises the safety of the student, the instructor(s), and the camera flyer.

When using larger aircraft, student groups typically exit farther upwind, which may require a higher opening for the camera flyer to safely return to the landing area.

When using a hand-mounted camera to video students, the tandem instructor should review the information contained in the Instructional Rating Manual Tandem Section regarding hand-cam training.

5-8: Wingsuit Flying

A. Introduction and Definitions

A wingsuit is a specialized suit designed with arm wings and a leg wing intended to increase the total surface area of the skydiver, which decreases vertical (downward) speed and increases horizontal (forward) speed. A wingsuit will decrease the skydiver’s full range of motion, whereas baggy jumpsuits and tracking suits still allow for a full range of motion. A wingsuit pilot is a skydiver who wears a wingsuit.

These recommendations provide guidance for a skydive that entails wearing a wingsuit, along with parameters for wingsuit progression and more advanced wingsuit-flying jumps.

B. Qualifications

The BSRs require any person performing a wingsuit jump to have at least 200 skydives and hold a current skydiving license. USPA also recommends the participating skydiver become a well-rounded, multi-discipline skydiver and canopy pilot. A wingsuit pilot should possess situational awareness regarding loading the plane, aircraft climb pattern and location, jump-run direction, exit order, exit separation, parachute opening, canopy flight, and landing pattern.

Before engaging in wingsuit jumps, a participating skydiver should take a first-flight course (FFC) with an experienced wingsuit coach. While USPA does not have a specific rating for wingsuit coaches, wingsuit manufacturers often offer instructional ratings for their products and provide contact details for endorsed wingsuit coaches. Regardless of manufacturer endorsement, a wingsuit coach should have a current USPA Coach rating and be a highly experienced wingsuit pilot. The drop zone where the FFC is held determines who can conduct it. 

C. Equipment

Wingsuit pilots should use non-elliptical canopies with reliable, on-heading openings. A beginner wingsuit pilot should limit their wing loading to no more than 1.3:1. An experienced wingsuit pilot should limit their wing loading to no more than 1.5:1.

Wingsuits create a large burble above and behind a skydiver and may not provide the pilot chute enough air for clean inflation and extraction of the deployment bag from the pack tray. USPA recommends a pilot chute with a diameter of at least 26 inches. Wingsuit pilots should use a pilot chute handle that is as light as possible, and USPA strongly recommends a bridle length of at least 7 feet from pin to pilot chute. The bottom-of-container throw-out pilot chute is the only deployment system that wingsuit pilots should use.

USPA recommends wingsuit pilots use an AAD and an RSL with a MARD. Jumpers should consult their drop zone about its rules regarding AAD use for wingsuit pilots. Wingsuit pilots should wear helmets, especially when flying in groups, and use an audible altimeter and a visual altimeter mounted on the chest strap or mud flap. Wingsuit pilots should wait to wear any camera until their exits, flights and deployments are consistent, stable, and routine.

D. Training

Regardless of experience in other disciplines, jumpers should seek thorough training with an experienced wingsuit coach before engaging in wingsuit flying. Before flying wingsuits in larger groups, novice wingsuit pilots should fly formations with a coach to develop exit, body position, docking, transition, breakoff, and deployment skills, following the same model as for the freefall and canopy-formation disciplines.

Regardless of wingsuit experience, jumpers should learn new wingsuit skills in groups no larger than a 3-way. This includes acrobatic maneuvers such as barrel rolls and docked transitions, XRW (mixed canopy and wingsuit jumps), performance flying, and dynamic flying. Before flying in a group larger than three wingsuit pilots, each participant should be able to make a stable and controlled exit. They each should be able to approach other wingsuit pilots in a gradual and controlled manner, checking their airspace and remaining aware of all other wingsuit pilots in their group. They should also each be able to break off and create a safe distance from other wingsuit pilots for deployment.

Wingsuit size progression should follow the manufacturer guidelines regarding minimum jump numbers. Larger wingsuit sizes require more skill. A wingsuit pilot wishing to advance into the next suit size should seek guidance from an experienced wingsuit coach. Just as it is important to have solid skill sets on a current canopy before downsizing, it is also important to have solid skill sets on a current wingsuit before upsizing.

E. Procedures

Group wingsuit flights should have planned breakoff and deployment altitudes. Wingsuit groups should have a planned breakoff signal to communicate that the group flight is over. The beginner wingsuit pilot—as well as wingsuit pilots who do not have consistent, stable deployments—should deploy at a minimum of 5,000 feet AGL.

Wingsuit deployments require active management of forward speed and body symmetry. Arm wings of the suit may fully obstruct the jumper’s ability to quickly deploy their main parachute without a specialized deployment technique. Wingsuit pilots should become proficient at the deployment technique before advancing in their progression of suit size.

Wingsuit pilots have additional steps to their post-deployment procedures following normal canopy inflation:

1. clear airspace
2. unzip arm wings first
3. perform canopy housekeeping
4. stow the tail wing
   (This depends on the personal preference of each wingsuit pilot and should not take priority over flying the canopy predictably and safely.)

Wingsuit pilots often share canopy airspace with tandems and jumpers still on student status, as well as other jumpers who may have deployed higher than 6,000 feet AGL. Wingsuit pilots should exercise awareness around these other canopies to avoid canopy collisions. 

Emergency Procedures: Arm wings may restrict movement and inhibit the wingsuit pilot from grabbing their risers until the arm wings are unzipped. Any wingsuit, regardless of the model, should allow enough range of motion for the wingsuit pilot to pull the main cutaway and reserve handles without unzipping the arm wings. 

During a high-speed canopy malfunction, the jumper should immediately execute emergency procedures without wasting time unzipping the arm wings first. In the event of a low-speed canopy malfunction, it may be necessary to unzip the arm wings in order to reach the risers. Wingsuit pilots should demonstrate the ability to unzip the arm wings all the way in a smooth and controlled fashion while practicing low-speed-canopy-malfunction drills. Unzipping the tail wing is not crucial for canopy flight, and an unzipped tail wing can potentially entangle with the main or reserve.

There are many facets to advanced wingsuit flying. Due to the increased risks involved, only experienced wingsuit flyers with the assistance of a coach following the prescribed outline under Section D—Training of this chapter should attempt any of the following disciplines:

• XRW – a discipline in which a wingsuit pilot flies in close proximity to and/or completes docks with a canopy pilot flying a high-performance parachute at a high wing loading.
• Performance – a competitive discipline that involves a wingsuit pilot flying for maximum performance in three separate tasks: speed, distance and time.
• Acrobatic – a competitive discipline that consists of docking with other wingsuit pilots and performing acrobatic maneuvers.
• Mixed – any wingsuit flight that occurs with other skydivers in freefall, such as rodeo, angles, and carving around freefall groups.
• Large Formations – as a record category, wingsuits can fly in large formations to achieve state, national and world records.
• Dynamic Flocking – a type of wingsuit flying that consists of group members flying together in a steep angle, such as layouts, flares, and carving.
• Accessories – jumping with accessories to wingsuit gear such as brackets, streamers and/or harnesses with ropes or handles. Wingsuit pilots should exercise great care, be cautious about entanglement issues, and plan cutaway procedures for everyone on the jump, whether they are in wingsuits or not.

F. Hazards Associated with Wingsuit Jumps

Restricted Movement: Arm movements are more restricted during a wingsuit skydive, although the amount of restriction is model-specific. Arm wings of the suit may fully obstruct the jumper’s ability to quickly deploy their main parachute without a specialized deployment technique.

Limited Visibility: The wingsuit pilot should follow the wingsuit manufacturer's guidelines when attaching a wingsuit to the harness-and-container system and use special care to ensure that the wingsuit does not obstruct the cutaway and reserve handles. Since harness leg straps are not visible when the wingsuit is fully zipped up, jumpers should take great care to ensure the leg straps are fully tightened while gearing up and during the pre-jump gear check.

Tail Strikes: During exit, wingsuit pilots must be especially careful to avoid colliding with the tail of the aircraft. A wingsuit flyer must direct their head into the relative wind, avoid jumping up while exiting, and refrain from fully opening leg and arm wings until they have passed below the tail of the aircraft. Wingsuiters should ask the pilot whether an engine cut is possible for their exit, since a solid engine cut helps wingsuiters avoid colliding with the tail during the exit, particularly in low-tail aircraft.

Out-of-Control Flight: Due to the responsiveness of pressurized wingsuits, stable and controlled flight requires subtle and relaxed movements. If a wingsuit pilot cannot control the heading of their flight, they may tumble and become disoriented in what is known as out-of-control flight (OCF). Wingsuit pilots should seek out coaching early in their progression to learn the skills necessary to control their wingsuit flight and avoid OCF. USPA strongly advises wingsuit pilots to adhere to the manufacturer's recommendations for the minimum number of jumps required to fly a certain size or style of wingsuit. If OCF occurs above deployment altitude and controlled flight cannot be regained within 5 seconds or within 5,000 feet of altitude loss, deploy the main parachute. If unable to locate the bottom-of-container deployment handle, pull the reserve immediately.  If OCF occurs below a wingsuit pilot’s planned deployment altitude, they should deploy regardless of their body position, which follows the pull priorities for any skydive. The inability to fly and deploy in a stable and controlled orientation will increase the likelihood of needing to execute emergency procedures. Wingsuit pilots should frequently practice their emergency procedures while visualizing the various scenarios where OCF occurred.

Coordination with other groups: Wingsuiters should be aware of other groups’ deployment altitudes and types of skydiving activities on their loads. Wingsuiters should be especially aware of any other movement groups and any skydivers on the load intending to deploy above 6,000 feet. If multiple groups of wingsuiters plan to exit on the same load, the groups should coordinate their flight patterns to allow separate airspace per the drop zone’s policies.

Navigation and Weather: Wingsuiters can travel for miles between exiting the aircraft and the deployment point. Thus, navigation—plotting a route, maneuvering to follow that route, and adapting when conditions change—is a critically important skill. Wingsuit pilots should determine winds aloft prior to jumping by consulting the pilot or winds-aloft forecasts. Wingsuit pilots must meet the cloud-clearance and visibility requirements of FAR 105.17, and the margin needed for their horizontal flight may exceed what other freefall groups need. If the wingsuit flight occurs near a coastline or other large body of water, the wingsuit flight pattern should remain close enough to the shoreline to ensure that each wingsuit pilot can make it to the designated landing area or another suitable landing area. Wingsuit pilots should consider wearing flotation gear on these types of jumps.

Wingsuit pilots generally fly a planned flight pattern, which may vary due to drop-zone and air-traffic concerns. The wingsuit flight pattern should avoid crossing jump run and should consider canopy traffic, particularly tandem and AFF students. The BSRs require at least 500 feet of vertical and horizontal separation from tandem pairs and students, and a safe distance from any other canopy.

Landing Out: If improper navigation occurs, a wingsuit pilot may land off. Wingsuit pilots should be familiar with the off-landing procedures of the drop zone. If landing in water is unavoidable, the jumper must fully unzip the arm and leg wings before landing in the water to allow as much freedom of movement as possible after entering the water.

G. Pre-Flight Checklist

This pre-flight checklist can help you determine the specifics of your jump. Draw your flight plan on the map of your drop zone and confirm it with the drop zone staff, load organizer, pilot, and S&TA.

• What is jump run for your load?
• What are the forecasted winds at these points during your jump?
  • Exit altitude
  • Flight
  • Deployment
  • Landing Pattern
  • Current Ground Conditions
• How many groups and other jumpers are on your load?
• What is your exit order?
• Are there any other wingsuit or movement jumps on your load?
  • Have you discussed and coordinated deployment areas with these groups?
• What are the terrain factors to consider in navigation?
• What is the intended landing pattern and holding area for the jump?
• Have you ensured that your flight path does not interfere with jump run?
• Is your flight plan appropriate for the skill level and wingsuit size for other jumpers in your group?

5-9: Canopy Piloting

A. Introduction and Purpose

USPA pursues a canopy education strategy in coordination with drop zone instructional staff, expert canopy pilots, advanced canopy training schools, and canopy manufacturers. Basic but comprehensive canopy-flight training starts in the USPA Integrated Student Program leading to the A license. Yet, the canopy designs and flying techniques that jumpers often choose to use as they progress in the sport require training beyond what skydiving students receive. This section serves as a bridge between your basic license training and your future goals, whatever they may be.

Analysis of incident reports indicates that jumpers are at risk without continued canopy training at each license level and throughout their skydiving careers. Even canopies considered lightly loaded can be dangerous if jumpers are not properly trained to fly them. Jumpers who have progressed without continued training are largely unprepared for how to handle their canopy in difficult canopy flight and landing situations. Preparation for unusual canopy flight and landing emergencies is key to reducing canopy pilot mistakes, injuries, and fatalities.

USPA encourages all jumpers to take canopy-piloting training courses to refine canopy skills, especially as they downsize to smaller canopies with increased wing loadings and performance characteristics.

B. Hazards Associated with Canopy Piloting

Some of the maneuvers described to develop understanding of canopy flight involve a greater risk of injury, even serious injury or death, than a routine parachute landing using a straight-in approach flown at the canopy’s natural speed until flaring. Any pilot who manipulates the canopy controls to induce additional speed prior to landing presents a greater hazard to themselves and others. Before jumping begins, the canopy coach, instructor or course director should require each participant to complete an assumption-of-risk agreement in conjunction with a comprehensive liability-risk-management program applied in accordance with applicable local and state laws.

C. Definitions and Procedures

A jumper chooses the correct canopy for their experience level based on canopy performance, which is significantly influenced by wing loading and design. A canopy designed for more performance may exhibit relatively docile characteristics when it’s loaded lightly and flown conservatively. A canopy designed for docile performance that is flown aggressively at a higher wing loading can exhibit high-performance characteristics.

Novice canopy flyers can make errors on larger, docile canopies without getting hurt that on smaller, more heavily loaded canopies could have serious consequences. All canopies can be deemed high performance depending on the wing loading. High performance generally refers to canopies loaded as follows:

• above 230 square feet, 1.1 pounds or more per square foot
• from 190 to 229 square feet, 1.0 pound or more per square foot
• from 150 to 189 square feet, .9 pound or more per square foot
• canopies smaller than 150 square feet at any wing loading

Canopy Design

Typical characteristics of elliptical canopies compared to rectangular canopies of the same size and material:

• flatter glide for same airspeed
• faster turns
• greater loss of altitude in a turn
• may continue to dive after stopping control input following a turn
• slower, less predictable opening (some models)
• shorter toggle stroke for flare (some models)
• quicker, more abrupt stall (some models)

The stall speed of any wing increases as the wing loading increases due to more suspended weight. Sudden maneuvers, such as flaring hard after a dive, can increase the stall speed, as well.

Jumpers should approach changing their canopy’s design with as much caution as downsizing. They should learn whether the canopy’s design elements match their overall expectations, goals and experience level. Many design elements drastically change the flight characteristics, stability, and overall level of performance of a parachute.

Jumpers should explore only one new design element at a time and separate it from downsizing; that is, change only one design characteristic while staying at the same square footage. These elements include tapered or elliptical planform (degree of taper or ellipse varies according to design), cross-bracing or other airfoil-flattening or stiffening design modifications, and anything requiring additional in-flight procedures (for example, a removable pilot chute, deployment bag, or slider).

Downsizing Progression

Each progressive step in downsizing, technique, and canopy design should be a conscious decision based on common sense, experience level, and demonstrated ability, rather than considered a routine part of a skydiver’s progression. Downsizing decisions must be based on each individual jumper’s readiness; however, the following are downsizing increments that are generally acceptable on the same canopy design.

• above 230 square feet, 20 to 30 square feet
• from 229 to 150 square feet, 20 square feet or less
• from 149 to 120 square feet, 15 square feet or less
• below 120 square feet, in smaller increments

Considerations Before Changing or Downsizing Canopies

How do you know whether you are ready to downsize? Consider the following:

• Change planform (type of canopy) or size, not both
• Downsize one size at a time
• Take a canopy class to master your current parachute
• Consider competency and currency rather than only jump numbers

Proficiency Exercises
On your current canopy, can you reliably perform the following exercises to the satisfaction of the S&TA or DZO?

Other Considerations Before Downsizing
Have you been jumping your current canopy recently or have you had a layoff? Do you feel you have mastered your parachute? Do you feel confident landing off? If you have any doubt, make 50 to 100 more jumps on your current canopy before downsizing. There is no penalty for waiting!

Considerations When Changing or Downsizing Canopies

You have your new-to-you canopy and are ready to make your first jump. Items to consider when learning about your new canopy include:

• Inspect used canopy for wear
• Are steering lines the correct length?
• Does the canopy require a staged or a continuous flare?
• Read the owner’s manual.
• Flight characteristics and landing techniques will be different. Plan on dedicating several hop-and-pops to learning about your canopy and practicing canopy-flight emergency procedures (CEPs).

Considerations After Changing or Downsizing for Long-Term Proficiency

Staying proficient on your canopy is your best defense against injury when forced to deal with a canopy-flight emergency. You should practice the following five canopy-flight emergency procedures at least once a month on hop-and-pop or high-pull jumps so you can use them quickly and correctly when needed. Stay alive, practice five!

1. Rear-Riser Turns
2. 90-Degree Braked Turns
3. Half-Braked Flares
4. Turn Reversals—Max Rate of Turn
5. Low-Turn Recovery

Practicing canopy-flight emergency procedures (CEPs) is just as important as practicing malfunction emergency procedures, and you should practice them regularly. Maintain traffic, altitude, and position awareness under canopy while practicing so a simulated emergency does not turn into a real emergency.

The USPA Downsizing Best Practices printable checklist is available at uspa.org/downsize or with this QR code. It includes all the information discussed in this section and provides a valuable guide for S&TAs, canopy coaches and jumpers themselves to prepare for and assess readiness to downsize or change canopy designs.

High-Performance Maneuvers

High-performance maneuvers occur when jumpers use control manipulation during descent and on the final landing approach to induce speeds greater than stabilized full flight, i.e., their natural speed and glide angle. This activity is commonly known as swooping. These types of landings are demanding and unforgiving and require careful supervision, practice, and planning.

A jumper’s experience, canopy size and canopy design determine which techniques might be considered conservative or high performance. Canopy-flight characteristics and control become more challenging as field elevation, temperature, and humidity increase. For safety, jumpers should receive specialized information and training to fly canopies at wing loadings approaching 1.5 pounds per square foot and beyond or canopies approaching 120 square feet or smaller. The decision to progress to high-performance canopy maneuvers and parachutes should include focused canopy coaching and continued consultation with a canopy coach to help the jumper assess readiness and skill level. Neglecting to undertake such training greatly increases the canopy pilot’s risk of serious injury or death. Most successful high-performance canopy pilots have practiced extensively and taken multiple canopy courses with larger canopies before experimenting with higher wing loadings and high-performance maneuvers.

High-Performance Landing Areas

Jumpers must perform high-performance landings using strategies to avoid collisions with other jumpers who are on a standard approach and be prepared to abort a high-performance landing maneuver if traffic exists. According to the USPA Group Member Pledge, drop zones must establish landing procedures that will include separation of high-performance and normal landing areas; such separation may be by location or time. Jumpers can achieve separation from others in the following ways:

• Make a high-pull jump: Canopy pilots must consider other high-opening jumpers (students, tandems, and others) and look for traffic during the descent.
• Perform a hop-and-pop: Canopy pilots exiting on a lower pass must fly to the holding area to clear the airspace for jumpers going to full altitude.
• Use a separate landing area: High-performance and standard landing procedures should be prominently displayed and communicated to all jumpers.

You must never attempt a high-performance landing with a turn of more than 90 degrees when other jumpers are landing using a standard landing pattern in the same area.

Canopy pilots should be completely familiar with all techniques and characteristics of advanced landings in a variety of weather conditions and using a variety of approaches before landing in the vicinity of any hazard, including water, as well as before attempting flight into a competition-style course.

D. B-License Canopy Proficiency Card

To get the most from the topics presented in this outline, a jumper should have completed all the exercises listed under “Canopy” in SIM Chapter 1, Categories A-H of the ISP, and hold a USPA A license. Jumpers who complete a course of instruction covering the topics listed here, including evaluation jumps and continued practice, should be better prepared to make choices regarding parachute size, design and maneuvers.

Instructor or Course Director Qualifications

USPA does not issue instructional ratings specifically for canopy coaching. Ideally, those who intend to teach a canopy-piloting course should hold a USPA Instructor rating; however, in some situations the person most qualified to teach this material may not hold any USPA instructional ratings but may have extensive knowledge about canopy control and landings. Regardless, for USPA B-License requirements, an S&TA must approve the instructor or course director and sign the B-License Canopy Proficiency Card once the jumper completes the course.

Instructors who intend to teach this material must realistically assess their level of knowledge regarding canopy flight and instruction. Before teaching this course, instructors must work through the outlined canopy skills using a variety of canopy designs and wing loadings. Attending any one of several commercially available canopy-flight schools as a student is highly recommended before teaching this course.

B-License Requirements

Every USPA B-License Application, paper or online, must also include a completed, verified B-License Canopy Proficiency Card. The B-license canopy training requires a minimum of five training jumps that may be completed in a structured course with all jumps completed in succession or individually, working one-on-one with an approved canopy coach. Some skills may require more than one jump to gain proficiency. The instructor or course director responsible for supervision, training and evaluation of the jump must sign each of the training jumps listed on the B-License Canopy Proficiency Card. A current S&TA, Examiner, or board member must verify the completed card to confirm that the candidate has satisfactorily completed the training.

Evaluation

The course director or instructor will evaluate each candidate’s participation, understanding, and demonstrated ability during the ground school and training jumps. The instructor or course director will debrief each skill, approach and landing. Attendees should be better able to self-assess their canopy aptitude and proficiency during future practice based on their experience with the supervised training maneuvers. The course director should sign and date the entries on the B-License Canopy Proficiency Card as jumpers successfully complete the required skills.

B-License Canopy Ground School Outline

Part 1: Equipment

A. Equipment choice considerations

Studies of USPA’s serious-injury and fatality summaries reveal that jumpers under canopies popularly considered “average sized” or “conservatively loaded” frequently mishandle them in non-routine landing situations.

Jumpers should:

• select equipment based on their goals and abilities, understanding that smaller canopies offer some advantages but also pose greater risks.
• should follow the guidance of the Downsizing Best Practices form to assess skill and readiness to change canopies.
• seek out reliable information and advice before changing to smaller canopies.

The sport of skydiving includes a series of specialized activities that require exclusive equipment, for example:

• classic accuracy
• canopy formation
• wingsuit flying
• camera flying
• high-performance landings
• competition canopy piloting

All jumpers should set goals in the sport, choose the best equipment to meet their needs, learn how to use that equipment, and skydive within the limits of their equipment and capabilities.

B. Basic aerodynamics

• Lift
  • Air passing over an airfoil creates a force called lift.
  • Lift is always perpendicular to the velocity.
  • A ram-air parachute is trimmed nose-down by cutting the A lines shorter and each group behind them a little longer.
• Drag
  • The resistance created by air as an object moves is called drag.
  • Drag is always parallel to the velocity.
  • The lines, pilot chute, slider, jumper’s body, and even the surface of the canopy itself produce drag (parasitic drag).
• Gravity
  • Gravity is a constant in the equation of forces acting on the jumper and canopy.
  • Using the force created by gravity, the airfoil deflects the air to make the canopy glide.
• Momentum (force)
  • Mass: Doubling the mass of a moving object gives it twice as much energy.
  • Speed
    • The term “speed” refers to the magnitude of velocity.
    • Energy increases as the square of the speed. (Doubling the speed produces four times the energy. Tripling the speed produces nine times the energy.)
    • Inertia: The term “inertia” means that an object in motion will stay in motion until resisted.

C. Wing loading

Wing loading is the jumper’s exit weight divided by the area of the parachute canopy, expressed in the U.S. in pounds per square foot. The higher the wing loading, the faster and higher performance the canopy will be. However, even if the wing loading is the same between two otherwise identical parachutes, the size of the canopies affects the performance characteristics. A 150-square-foot parachute at a one-pound-per-square-foot wing loading will have a steeper glide ratio, faster turns, and be more high performance than a 190-square-foot parachute at the same wing loading. This means that, regardless of the wing loading, all small canopies (150 square feet or less) are high performance.

• Smaller canopies with shorter lines will respond differently than larger canopies of the same design and equal wing loading.
• Compared to a canopy with longer lines, a shorter-lined canopy will have quicker turns, quicker flare response, and quicker pendulum action (quicker to dive after an early flare).
• Lighter jumpers will remain on larger parachutes at lower wing loadings for a longer period of time.
• Most jumpers can get a lot more performance from their canopies without needing to increase their wing loading with a downsize.

D. Performance-enhancing designs

• Tapered shape (planform)
  • more dimensional stability (less distortion)
  • faster forward speed due to decreased drag
  • faster turns and less flight stability
• High aspect ratio
  • flat glide
  • easier flare
    • lighter toggle pressure
    • shorter toggle stroke (some models)
    • quicker flare response
• Higher rib frequency to reduce billowing between ribs
  • seven-cell vs. nine-cell
  • cross bracing
• Thickness (after inflation)
  • thicker: slow speed, more predictable and gentler stall
  • thinner: faster speed, more abrupt stalls at a higher speed

E. Drag reduction

• Zero-porosity fabric
• Small-diameter lines
• Collapsible pilot chute
• Collapsible slider:
  • cloth or metal links with covers
  • larger vs. smaller slider grommets
• Risers
• Outerwear
• Removable deployment systems
• Body position

F. Controls: toggles and beyond

• Brakes
  • toggle types for ease of handling
  • steering-line length to allow front-riser maneuvers (toggles in hand)
• Front risers and control-enhancement discussion (loops, blocks, etc.)
• Back risers and how they work
• Front risers and how they work
• Harness turns

G. Accessories

• Jumpsuit (reinforced butt and knees)
• Hard helmet
• Gloves, pros and cons
• Altimeter
  • altimeter use under canopy
  • digital vs. analog
• Weights

H. Speed

• The pilot perceives the forward speed more than the downward speed, so a faster canopy can seem a lot scarier to fly.
• The faster the canopy goes, the more effect adding drag (by using a control) will have on the flight path.

I. Glide

• Skydiving canopies: approximately 2.5:1 in natural flight
• Changing the glide
  • using brakes or rear risers
  • using induced speed to temporarily add lift

Part 2: Maintenance

A. Environment

• Dirt degrades fabric, lines, and slider.
• Ultraviolet degrades nylon.
  • sunlight
  • fluorescent lighting (50% of the strength of sunlight)
• Water distorts reinforcement tapes.

B. Collapsible pilot chute and slider

• Wear results from friction as the line moves through its channel.
• Pilot chute centerlines shrink with use.

C. Suspension lines

• Spectra can’t stretch, and it shrinks with a lot of use.
• Vectran is stable in both directions but abrades.
• HMA is stable but can break when it still looks new.
• Dacron stretches on opening, is stable and durable, but larger.

D. Brake lines

• Wear
• Shrinkage
• Dangers of a broken line
  • upon flaring
  • of landing a smaller canopy using risers

E. Packing

• On-heading opening
• Even risers
• Symmetrical bag
• Line-stow placement and tension
• 24 inches of unstowed line to allow the bag to lift out of the burble over the jumpers back

F. Equipment inspection

• Pre-jump
• During packing (various times throughout the course)

Part 3: Breakoff, Opening, Separation, and Canopy Traffic

A. Breakoff

• Breakoff altitude should allow enough time to open clear of others and handle both routine and abnormal circumstances.
• Tracking review
  • conserving altitude during turning and tracking
  • body position and flat-track technique
  • opening when clear at the optimum altitude
• Flying through and managing the opening
  • shoulders level (use this time to look at the horizon)
  • allow legs to move forward during opening, like sitting in a chair, keeping hips level to avoid harness inputs during opening.
  • knees-up position helps to stop the swing going to the hips and absorbs the shock in the event of a hard opening.
  • If turning occurs during opening, use the harness to stop the turn.
  • Keep your head looking forward at the horizon to avoid accidental harness input during the opening.
  • Have your hands on your rear risers as soon as they are available immediately after deployment to steer for collision avoidance, even if you believe you have jumped alone.
  • Look forward for any jumpers opening nearby who may be coming toward you. Be prepared to turn right, unless you obviously need to turn left, with rear risers to avoid a collision.
  • Once confirming that you’re clear of other jumpers, continue using the rear risers with the brakes set (if responding correctly) to orient toward the drop zone or holding area prior to releasing brakes and completing the canopy-controllability check.

    

• Dealing with a standard problem is more difficult as canopy performance increases.
  • Discuss the following from the perspective of higher-performance canopies:
    • line twists
    • premature brake release
    • locked brake(s)
    • slider/brake system fouling
  • Spinning under a smaller canopy results in rapid altitude loss. Check altitude and if above the 1,000-foot cutaway hard deck,
    don’t delay, cut away!

B. Traffic

• As canopies fly faster, jumpers must pay better attention to other canopy traffic on descent.
• Altitude management
  • use of brakes to stay aloft
  • relative wing loading
    • self-assessment
    • knowing the wing loading of others
  • placement in the aircraft
  • a dive plan, such as stacked approaches, to promote vertical separation under canopy
• Awareness of others
  • Know or judge others’ canopies, wing loading, and habits.
  • Fly the landing pattern or land elsewhere.
  • Fly a straight final approach avoiding S-turns.
  • Dealing with others’ errors:
    • In the event of a traffic issue, discuss the problem with the canopy pilots who were involved.
    • canopy wake turbulence, which is behind and above the canopy in flight (yours and others’)
    • only need to miss by a little—no low turns necessary
• Off-wind landings (technique)
  • crosswind
  • downwind
• Landing away from the crowd
  • less pressure; room to practice
  • familiarity and consistency with using the same landing area every time
• Situations that pop up:
  • Crowded landing area: Follow someone you trust closely and let them know you’re there.
  • Cutaways disrupt the plan for a normal main-canopy descent and landing
  • Landing accidents on the ground can lead to confusion and chaos.
  • Off-field landing
    • Plan and follow a sensible pattern.
    • Keep your eyes open.
    • Follow the landing priorities and perform a PLF.

B-License Canopy Proficiency Card Exercises

A. Flight Plan

The course director should assist the class with an aircraft, canopy flight, and landing plan prior to each jump included in the course. The plan should include an individualized progression plan for each student according to experience and goals. The plan should consider wind conditions, DZ layout and target areas, traffic management to keep clear of other jumpers not participating, and landing separation between canopy students. The course director should videotape landings for debriefing. The first jump in the course should follow the presentation and discussion of the ground-school topics.

B. Canopy Skill Practice Jumps

JUMP 1—BRAKED TURNS, ACCURACY, AND FLARE EVALUATION

Classroom Briefing

• Discuss collapsing slider and loosening chest strap
• Inspecting the canopy’s steering lines while in full flight with the brakes released.
  • steering lines on most canopies should bow slightly behind the back of the canopy
  • check with the manufacturer for recommendations for adjustments
  • steering lines should have enough slack so that the jumper can pull the front risers with the toggles in hand and still not deflect the tail of the canopy.
  • A parachute rigger should adjust the length of the steering lines, if necessary, before the next jump.
• Reasons for flying in brakes
  • vertical separation from canopy traffic
  • slow forward speed and descent rate to conserve altitude
  • returning from a long spot
  • flat turn as a Canopy-Flight Emergency Procedure at low altitudes
• Avoid stalling the canopy.
  • effect of brakes on glide
  • slower forward speed
  • lower descent rate
• Change in glide angle:
  • experiment to determine the change in glide path at different degrees of braked flight
  • Most modern nine-cell canopies fly flatter when a slight amount of brakes are applied.

• Methods for initiating braked turns
  • Pull both toggles to the quarter-braked position (ears).
  • Pull one toggle down to turn.
  • Pull both toggles to half-braked position (mid chest).
  • Pull one toggle down slightly to initiate a turn in the same direction.
• Flaring Techniques
  • On final approach in natural flight, your body is below the center of the canopy.
  • During initial flare using toggles or rear risers, the canopy rocks slightly behind the jumper, raising the nose in relation to the tail and temporarily increasing lift.
  • Gradually pulling the toggles farther down adds drag on the tail, keeping the canopy at the correct angle and providing the most lift for the remainder of the flare.
  • The most effective flare technique varies by canopy type.
  • Practice an effective flaring technique, focusing on a smooth finish.
    • Make a straight-in approach facing into the wind, with minimal input for the last 10 seconds before the landing flare.
    • Focus on flying your canopy as long as possible before allowing your feet to touch the ground and finish the flare completely even after your feet first touch the ground.
    • Finish the flare and hold hands down for a few steps after touch down.

Under Canopy

• Collapse slider and loosen chest strap.
• Inspect the canopy’s steering lines while in full flight, with the brakes released.
• Practice flare technique based on the canopy type.
• Braked turns
  • Practice braked turns using all the methods discussed.
• Pattern and landing
  • Choose a target for landing. A safe, soft landing from a straight-in approach is the priority regardless of accuracy.
  • Perform a straight-in approach in full flight, with minimal input for the last 10 seconds before starting your normal flare technique.

JUMP 2— FLIGHT CYCLE AND CROSSWIND LANDINGS

Classroom Briefing

• Flight Cycle
  • A flight cycle occurs after any input as the canopy responds and then returns to stabilized full flight.
  • More drastic input equals a bigger flight cycle or surge, where the canopy picks up speed and is moving faster than when in full flight.
  • While turning or flaring your parachute, your body's location in relation to the canopy changes, creating a flight cycle.
  • In a turn, momentum swings your body out from under the canopy.
  • During the flight cycle, your body begins to swing back under the canopy.
  • Recovery from a flight cycle should take 4 to 8 seconds, depending on the canopy.
  • Prevent a flight cycle by raising the toggles slowly, preventing the nose from pitching forward, surging and picking up speed.

• Flaring from a braked position
  • Expect a different glide on a braked final approach.
  • Expect a shorter and quicker stroke needed for an effective flare.
  • Prepare for a PLF due to potentially harder landing.
• Crosswind landings
  • Fly a landing pattern that allows for a crosswind final approach and landing.
  • For training and familiarization, perform the crosswind landing only in winds up to 5 miles per hour.
  • All jumpers on the same pass must use the same landing pattern to promote a smooth flow of traffic.
  • On final approach, focus on crosswind correction necessary to prevent crabbing.
  • A crosswind landing may require pulling the upwind toggle deeper than the downwind toggle to keep going in the same direction and reduce the ground speed upon landing. Performing an uneven flare in this manner increases the stall speed of the canopy. A PLF is recommended for any unusual landing.

Under Canopy

• Flight Cycle—Do all flight-cycle exercises above your decision altitude.
  • Flare the canopy to three-quarter brakes and hold for 5 seconds. Let the toggles up quickly to induce the flight cycle.
  • Repeat the exercise and count the number of seconds to recover to full flight.
  • Repeat the exercise but slowly raise the toggles over 3 to 4 seconds to prevent the flight cycle.
• Braked Flares
  • Practice flaring several times from the quarter and half-braked positions, focusing on an effective flare from each position.
• Crosswind landing
  • Choose a target for landing and execute a crosswind-oriented downwind, base, and final approach.

JUMP 3—STALLS

Classroom Briefing

• Stalls
  • A stall is an aerodynamic event where a wing loses its ability to produce lift. When a ram-air parachute stalls, it will lose lift and pressurization and will no longer support the weight of the jumper. For this reason, perform stalls carefully and always above decision altitude.
  • A stall can occur as the result of either too much or too abrupt input with the toggles or the rear risers. Applying too much input is associated with a slow-speed stall, where the canopy loses airspeed and will eventually stall. Applying input too abruptly is associated with a higher-
  • speed stall, where the stall will occur more suddenly and at a higher airspeed.
• Toggle stalls
  • Intentionally stalling with toggles begins with straight-and-level flight. Slowly pull the toggles down to full arm extension until you feel the stall onset, a feeling like rocking back in a chair and falling backward.
  • The ideal stall point using toggles is down at full arm extension, with the stall occurring after holding the toggles there for 5 to 6 seconds. The exact toggle position will differ from canopy to canopy and from jumper to jumper based on the length of the steering lines.
  • You must find the stall point on any canopy that you are jumping for the first time. If the steering lines were adjusted for a person with shorter arms, you may be able to stall the canopy at something less than full arm extension, which risks a stall close to the ground during a normal landing flare.
  • Once you feel the onset of the stall, you can hold the toggles and allow the stall to fully develop. The air will leave the canopy, it will fold into the shape of a bow tie, and you will begin descending at a high rate of speed.
  • Use the same procedure whether recovering from the onset of a stall or a fully developed stall: slowly raise the toggles back up to a position where the canopy inflates and returns to normal flight.
  • Avoid raising the toggles too quickly to recover, which can cause the canopy to surge, dive, or spin into line twists. A forward surge can be severe enough that the jumper gets tangled in the suspension lines, and some line twists can be severe and unrecoverable. Practice stalls carefully and always above your decision altitude.
• Rear-riser stalls
  • The same concepts and guidelines as stalling with toggles apply to rear-riser stalls, but rear-riser stalls change the shape of the parachute by affecting the C and D lines (the back half of your canopy).
  • When stalling using rear risers, the stroke is only 5-6 inches as compared to the long control stroke when stalling with toggles. The shorter stroke makes it more difficult to gently approach the stall point and easier to over-control the rear risers, potentially stalling your parachute accidentally.
  • Rear riser stalls commence more suddenly than toggle stalls but recovering from them is easier and smoother.
  • Once you feel the stall's onset, hold the risers and let it fully develop. The back of the parachute will distort, taking the shape of a hot dog bun.
  • Slowly let your rear risers up to recover from the stall.
• High-speed stalls
  • Stalls can occur at higher airspeeds, such as when the canopy is in a turn or a dive.
  • At higher airspeeds, adding too much input with risers or toggles or adding input too abruptly can cause the canopy to stall. These high-speed stalls will happen quickly and less predictably than the low-speed stalls, making them much more dangerous. You should avoid doing them intentionally.
  • The best way to avoid high-speed stalls is to understand the limits of your canopy when flying at higher airspeeds. Practice the input limits of your canopy above your decision altitude.

Under Canopy

• Stall-practice procedure—perform above decision altitude
  • Stall using toggles
    • Gently apply brakes to a point where forward flight diminishes and the canopy begins to sink.
    • Hold the brakes down until the canopy is shaped like a bow tie.
    • Slowly raise the toggles 4 to 6 inches at a time until resuming forward flight.
  • Stall using rear risers
    • Grab high on the riser with full arm extension, keeping toggles in your hands.
    • Slowly pull down the rear risers several inches until forward flight stops.
    • After adding more riser input, the canopy will eventually sink and begin to descend in a backward direction, taking the shape of a hot dog bun.
    • Let the risers up slowly to recover to forward flight.
• Three-quarter-braked turns
  • Pull both toggles to the three-quarter-braked position (hip bones).
  • Let one toggle up slightly to initiate a turn in the opposite direction.
• Choose a target for landing and execute a downwind, base, and final approach into the wind.

JUMP 4— REAR-RISER TURNS AND FLARES

Classroom Briefing

• Rear-riser turns and flares
  • On opening, using rear risers is the quickest way to turn the parachute.
  • You can use rear-riser turns to turn toward your holding area right after opening or quickly turn away from another jumper to avoid a collision.
  • Steer with rear risers for flatter turns to conserve altitude.
  • Pull down one to two inches, smoothly and symmetrically, with both rear risers to flatten the glide when flying in a crosswind or headwind.
  • Practice with your rear risers to avoid over-controlling (using too great of an input).
  • Landing using rear risers instead of toggles requires practice to avoid stalling close to the ground.

Under Canopy

• Rear-riser turns with brakes stowed:
  • Grab high on the riser with full arm extension.
  • Initiate alternating 90-degree turns using rear risers.
• Rear-riser turns with brakes unstowed, keeping toggles in your hands:
  • Grab high on the riser with full arm extension.
  • Initiate alternating 90-degree turns using rear risers.
• Rear-riser flares with brakes unstowed, keeping toggles in your hands:
  • Practice rear-riser flares without stalling the canopy.
  • Fly the canopy descent using rear risers.
  • Choose a target for landing and execute the turns onto the downwind, base, and final legs with the rear risers.
  • Take your hands off the rear risers by 150 feet AGL and land into the wind using your toggles.

JUMP 5—LONG SPOT

Classroom Briefing

• Return from a long spot by projecting the landing point.
  • Discover how to locate the point on the ground that a parachute in full flight will reach.
• Alter the glide using brakes and rear risers.
  • Use brakes with a tailwind.
  • Use rear risers with a crosswind or headwind.
  • Minimize drag.
  • Collapse the slider.
  • Pull legs up, arms in, and arch to reduce air resistance.
  • Loosen the chest strap to improve glide.
  • If holding brakes, reduce fatigue by hooking your thumbs in the harness. (Be careful not to hook onto your cutaway or reserve handles.)
• Decide on a new landing area by 2,000 feet.
• Choose an alternate landing area if necessary and follow off-field landing recommendations.
• Allow enough altitude to fly a pattern.
• Expect the winds to weaken as you get lower.

Under Canopy

• Exit the aircraft at 5,000 feet AGL at least 1.5 miles upwind of the main landing area.
• Determine the glide path of the canopy and the landing point using the projected landing point. Determine the point on the ground that is neither rising nor sinking in your field of vision.
• Alter the glide and compare effectiveness:
  • using brakes
  • using rear risers
• If you cannot reach the intended landing area in time to start a pattern at the planned altitude, choose an alternate by 2,000 feet AGL.
• Choose a target for landing, and execute a downwind, base, and final-approach leg for landing, following the landing priorities.

5-10: Movement Jumps

A. Introduction and Definition

Movement jumps include but are not limited to tracking and angle-flying jumps. These recommendations provide guidance for a non-wingsuit jump on which a skydiver or group intends to move horizontally off the line of flight during freefall.

B. Qualifications

Before engaging in movement jumps outside of the Integrated Student Program, a participating skydiver (not a leader) should hold a USPA A license and demonstrate proficiency at tracking while maintaining situational awareness.

Before engaging in movement jumps as the leader, the skydiver should have:

• At a minimum, qualified for the USPA C License.
• The ability to maintain consistent awareness of altitude and location
• Proficiency and experience in the discipline
• Received formal instruction on:
  • DZ terrain (changing ground levels, bodies of water or any other ground obstacles) and alternate landing areas (outs).
  • exit order
  • navigation (ability to move in the correct direction and deploy where planned)
  • communication with drop zone authorities, other jumpers and the pilot (to determine jump run and spot)
  • understanding weather (including reading a winds-aloft forecast, and maintaining awareness of clouds prior to jumping)
  • Making a flight plan (including exit order, breakoff and designated deployment area) and adjusting that flight plan as necessary to accommodate changing conditions to avoid other groups.

Jumpers can use the graph below to determine their skill levels:

	Beginner	Intermediate	Advanced
Group Size	1-3	4-7	8+
Angle of Jump	Flat	Shallow	Steep
Transitions	0	1-3	4+
Relativity	Can fly in a quadrant, oriented head down (on both back and belly)	Can fly in quadrant or on level, oriented head down (on belly and back), manage speed and pitch	Ability to maintain slot and stability in any orientation and matching speed and pitch
Breakoff	Fan out, choose a clear path and airspace	Can accelerate, choose a clear path and airspace to flatten out	Can accelerate, choose a clear path and airspace to flatten out, while mitigating congestion
Wind Conditions at Altitude	Calm	Calm to Mild	Calm to Extreme
Wind Speed and Weather	No-to-light ground winds	Medium ground winds	High ground winds, wind shear between uppers and canopy winds, clouds, emerging weather

C. Equipment

Properly secure your gear to prevent premature deployment of either canopy. A premature opening at the speeds involved in this type of skydiving could result in severe injury to the body or stress to the equipment beyond limits set by the manufacturers. Deployment systems and operation handles should remain secure during inverted and stand-up flight. Therefore, equipment for movement jumps should include either a throw-out pilot chute with a bottom-of-container-mounted pouch, or a pull-out pilot chute. Exposed leg-strap-mounted pilot chutes present an extreme hazard. Also, any exposed pilot-chute bridle presents a hazard. Use a tuck-tab to provide additional security for the pilot chute. Maintain and properly size your closing loops and ensure your pin-protection flaps and riser covers are in good shape.

Connect leg straps with a bungee to keep the leg straps from moving toward your knees. Tightly stow excess leg and chest strap material. USPA recommends participants use an AAD and an RSL with a MARD due to the high potential for collisions and loss of altitude awareness associated with movement jumps.

Personal accessories for movement jumps should include:

• audible altimeter (two are recommended)
• visual altimeter
• hard helmet
• clothing or jumpsuit that will remain in place during movement flights and will not obscure or obstruct deployment, emergency handles or altimeters
• GPS

D. Training

Movement flying has many things in common with belly-to-earth formation skydiving. A beginner will progress more quickly and safely with a coach. Novices should not jump with each other until they have received specific training in movement jumps and have demonstrated the ability to control navigation, pitch, and speed.

Prior to jumping with larger groups, progress should follow the same model as for the freefall and canopy formation disciplines: Novices should begin with coached 2-way formations to develop breakoff skills and exit, body-position, pitch and speed control, and then gradually progress to larger and more complex movement jumps.

E. Hazards Associated with Movement Jumps

Navigation is a critically important skill that entails plotting a route, maneuvering to follow that route, and adapting when conditions change. Jumpers must plan accordingly to:

• Move off the aircraft's line of flight
• Consider other movement groups on the load
• Avoid other groups in freefall and under canopy
• Open where they've pre-determined
• Account for the DZ terrain
• Have a backup plan for landing out

Weather is important in the planning phase to determine navigation and exit order and to coordinate with other movement groups. Cloud conditions can change during freefall and canopy flight.

Prior to boarding, it is of the utmost importance to communicate your intentions with the drop zone authorities (such as manifest, an S&TA or a load master) and the entire load in order to understand local drop zone restrictions and requirements for movement jumps, share your flight plan, and determine exit order. It is also important that everyone in the group understands the DZ terrain, hazards, and alternate landing areas.

Several factors—such as local DZ rules and terrain, weather and leader experience—influence how many movement groups may safely be on any one aircraft load. However, the general recommendation is to limit movement groups to two per load.

Exit order will depend on weather, freefall drift, DZ terrain, deployment altitudes, other groups, and DZ rules and considerations. The group leader must communicate with the S&TA, drop zone, pilot, and others on the load.

Every jump plan should accommodate the skill level of the jumper with the least experience in order to execute the flight plan and open in the determined spot. Opening in the correct, predetermined spot is crucial for safety, so jumpers must be able to demonstrate proficiency on beginner-level movement jumps before progressing to intermediate or advanced jumps. Jumpers who are unable to follow intermediate or advanced movement jumps may cause their groups to conflict with others on the load. Adding speed and pitch changes and transitions greatly increases the difficulty of the jump, requiring an expert leader to consider all the variables of the jump so as to avoid collisions, maintain the flight plan and open in the predetermined spot.

Maintain visual contact with the leader so you can adapt if you are far behind, above, to the side of or low relative to the group. Even if you are far away from the group, continue moving in the same direction to avoid collisions. Maintain the same heading as the rest of the group. Off-heading collisions are more dangerous than collisions between jumpers heading in the same direction. Never turn 180 degrees from the group's heading, even if you think there is no one behind you. If you have passed the group, slow down and let it catch up. If you are flying to the side of the group and the group starts turning toward you, turn toward the same heading, even if you are far away.

It is crucial to understand the elements of breakoff to avoid congestion and collisions. Choose a clear path and fan out from the other jumpers while flattening the pitch to a track. Maintain awareness by looking in all directions. If you are on your back at breakoff, avoid flipping to a belly-to-earth orientation until you are on a clear trajectory with no one above you. Once on your belly, continue to track off until it is time to clear airspace and pull.

F. Pre-Flight Checklist

This pre-flight checklist can help you determine the specifics of your jump. Draw the flight plan on the map of your drop zone and share it with the drop zone staff, other jumpers on the load, and the pilot to confirm you can perform the skydive safely:

• What is jump run for your load?
• What are the forecasted winds aloft at these points during your jump?
  • exit altitude
  • freefall
  • under canopy
  • in the landing pattern
• How many groups and other jumpers are on your load?
• What is your exit order?
  • Are there any other movement jumps on your load?
• What are the DZ terrain factors to consider in navigation?
• What is the intended landing pattern and holding area for the jump?
• Have you ensured that your flight path does not interfere with jump run?
• Does your flight plan take into consideration freefall, DZ terrain, canopy flight path and weather?
• Is your flight plan appropriate for the skill level of all the jumpers?

5-11: Speed Skydiving

A. Introduction

These recommendations guide skydivers who are intentionally attempting to reach their highest terminal velocity in freefall. Although speed skydives incorporate both freeflying and angle-flying elements, the high vertical speeds present several unique considerations. The speeds achieved will vary dramatically based on skill and experience. Only a tiny minority of top competitors surpass 300 mph. Most beginners, especially those without extensive angle-flying and tunnel experience, will likely fly in the low-200-mph range. Jumpers can find competition rules in Chapter 15 of the USPA Skydiver’s Competition Manual (SCM).

B. Qualifications

Before engaging in speed skydives, a skydiver should hold a C license or higher, have made a minimum of 200 jumps, and exhibit consistent awareness of altitude and location over the ground.

To avoid other groups, speed skydivers must make a flight plan that includes exit order, freefall, breakoff, and canopy flight path. Speed skydivers should have a qualified person inspect their gear and should consult a local S&TA or drop zone staff on:

• the terrain and alternate landing areas around the drop zone
• communication with drop zone authorities, other jumpers, and the pilot to determine jump run and spot
• Weather, including reading a winds-aloft forecast and maintaining awareness of clouds before jumping
• exit order
• navigation plan determining the correct direction to move and deployment altitude and location

C. Equipment

Jumpers must adequately secure their gear to prevent premature deployment of the main or reserve parachutes. Because speeds can surpass the maximum deployment speeds of the FAA’s Technical Standard Order (TSO) for gear, a premature opening could result in severe injury or death. Deployment systems and operation handles should remain secure during inverted flights. Therefore, equipment for speed skydives should include either a well-maintained bottom-of-container-mounted throw-out-pilot-chute pouch, or a pull-out pilot chute. Exposed leg-strap-mounted pilot chutes are hazardous. Any exposed pilot-chute bridle also presents a danger. Jumpers should use a tuck tab to provide additional security for the pilot chute. Closing loops, pin-protection flaps, and riser covers should be well-maintained and adequately sized. Jumpers must tightly stow excess leg and chest strap material. USPA recommends that speed skydivers use an AAD because of the high potential of losing altitude awareness.

Personal accessories for speed skydiving should include:

• Two audible altimeters, preferably including flashing visuals inside the helmet, since the wind noise on a speed skydive may drown out the audible beeps. Jumpers must increase the volume of all audible altimeters to maximum.
• Visual altimeter
• Hard helmet. If a jumper uses a full-face helmet, they must ensure that the visor stays shut during the jump, either through its design or by using additional constraints (e.g., tape). The jumper must have a plan in case vision becomes limited by lens fogging. If a jumper uses an open-face helmet, they must ensure that eye protection is secure.
• Appropriate clothing. Most speed skydivers choose to fly with extremely tight clothing or a jumpsuit that helps cut down on drag. Consequently, jumpers need better body-flight skills to maintain control. A jumper's chosen attire should not obscure or obstruct deployment or emergency handles or altimeters.
• Speed measuring device (SMD). This device, mounted on the skydiver's body or equipment, records the real-time, three-dimensional position of the jumper.

While jumpers may experiment and modify equipment as the discipline progresses, there are safety considerations. Jumpers can use aero-shaping—the process of aerodynamic shape optimization, i.e., changing the shape of equipment from its original factory design to a discipline-specific intent—during training or experimentation. Competition speed skydivers may use only standard skydiving equipment.

Maximizing freefall performance for speed skydiving involves reducing drag force. Experimental processes to identify variables include but are not limited to fabricating equipment and bolt-on items using special materials and fabrics. Jumpers should use caution when making modifications to helmets, as a shape or weight change may result in severe torques to the neck and spine that could result in severe injury. Competitors may not wear a propulsion system or added weight. If a jumper wishes to train or experiment with such items, an experienced speed skydiver or S&TA should review them before use. Using a tandem rig for speed skydiving is not permitted in competition nor recommended in training.

New speed skydivers, who may not yet have the skills necessary to fly at 200-plus mph in a skin-tight suit, should consider using a suit with some drag. Jumpers should use a conservative approach when decreasing drag in the speed discipline, relatable to upsizing a wingsuit or downsizing a canopy.

D. Training

Speed skydiving is a solo discipline, and participants primarily evaluate their performance by analyzing data from an SMD. Speed skydivers can also employ a coach to help analyze data and film their routines, since the analysis of body-flight performance is just as vital as the recorded data from an SMD. During a jump with a speed skydiver and coach, the jumpers must actively mitigate the risk of collisions at high speeds by closely matching speed and direction.

Speed skydiving requires similar skills and shares elements with freeflying and movement jumps. A beginner will progress faster and safer with a coach. Novices should not attempt speed skydiving until they have received training in some combination of tracking, angle flying, tunnel flying, and freeflying, and, if possible, demonstrate the ability to control navigation, body pitch, and speed. Angle flying includes many essential skills for novice speed flyers, such as body positions, freefall awareness and flight planning for freefall and canopy. Once proficient with those skills, jumpers can begin with solo runs, prioritizing control rather than speed to develop exit, body position, heading control, pitch and speed control, and breakoff skills, then progress gradually to faster terminal velocities. Using a coach can maximize the progression and understanding for jumpers new to speed skydiving.

A speed skydiver’s breakoff altitude should be no lower than 5,600 feet (1,707 meters) AGL. Competition rules do not include any measurements below the breakoff altitude. Higher breakoffs also ensure the performer has adequate time to slow down before deploying a parachute. The performance window is the scoring part of the speed jump, which starts at the exit. The end of the performance window is either 7,400 ft. (2,256 meters) below the exit or at breakoff altitude, whichever comes first.

No one should attempt a speed run on a low-altitude pass, for example, a hop-and-pop.

E. Hazards Associated with Speed Skydives

Before boarding, speed skydivers must communicate their intentions with the drop zone manifest, an S&TA, or a load organizer, as well as the entire load.

Exit order primarily depends on the speed the jumper consistently attains. Once a speed skydiver can demonstrate that they are consistently exceeding normal maximum freefly speeds (more than approximately 250 mph), they should exit first and turn away from jump run. Speed skydivers who exit after other jumpers create an extreme safety risk. A collision between a speed skydiver traveling at 300 mph and a solo belly jumper in a baggy suit will have a 200-mph closure rate. If more than one speed skydiver is on a load, exit order should be fastest out first, with consideration given to deployment altitudes and parachute type and size. Each jumper should take an opposite direction of flight (e.g., first person turns 90-degrees right off jump run, seconds turns 90-degrees left, and so on). When integrating with other disciplines, speed skydivers should be classified as a movement jump and should not be followed by another movement group.

After exit, the speed skydiver should move off the aircraft's line of flight yet remain on course. Maintaining stability and orientation in freefall is important.

Sinus problems and even sinonasal injury can result from uncompensated change in ambient pressures. During a speed dive, sinuses have less time to equalize than during a typical skydive. During a skydive, a jumper can equalize the pressure by swallowing, yawning, or tensing the muscles of the throat. In addition, jumpers can perform the Valsalva maneuver after landing by closing the mouth, pinching the nostrils closed and gently blowing air through the nose. Issues with sinuses can severely hinder spatial awareness and the ability to hear audible altimeters. To prevent issues in case of disorientation, speed skydivers should ensure their flight path does not converge with other groups. If disoriented, a speed skydiver should terminate their run.

Breaking off or pulling out of the dive at or above 5,600 ft. (1,707 meters) AGL is recommended. At 310 mph, a jumper travels at 450 feet per second. Slowing down to a safe deployment speed is critical and can be accomplished by transitioning out of the vertical flying orientation to a horizontal one. A jumper may experience a short-lived yet powerful deceleration up to 3.5 times the force of gravity. Speed skydivers should consider the resulting horizontal speed, as well as vertical speed, whether they are at the end of the performance or experiencing spatial disorientation.

A speed skydiver must slow their terminal velocity to deployment speeds. A parachute deployment, intentional or unintentional, while performing a speed skydive can result in severe injury or death. Speed skydivers should consider the time it will take to slow down and choose a deployment altitude a safe margin above the minimum deployment altitudes required by the BSRs.

Once under canopy, a speed skydiver must take great care to avoid other groups that might still be in freefall. Groups to avoid can include those that exit before or after the speed skydiver. After opening, speed skydivers continue flying their canopy along a course perpendicular to jump run to avoid flying underneath a group that might still be in freefall.