2007 SIM

1. Group skydiving, traditionally called "relative work," may be described as the intentional maneuvering of two or more skydivers in proximity to one another in freefall.

2. The concept of group skydiving is the smooth flow and grace of two or more jumpers in aerial harmony.

a. Mid-air collisions and funneled formations are not only undesirable but can be dangerous.

b. The colliding of two bodies in flight can cause severe injuries or death.

c. The greatest danger exists when jumpers lose sight of each other and open independently, which may set the stage for a jumper in freefall to collide with an open canopy.

d. Even after opening, there is the possible danger of canopy collisions if proper safety procedures are not followed.

B. Training and procedures

1. Before training for group freefall, each student should complete all the training and advancement criteria through Category F of the USPA Integrated Student Program, Section 4 of this manual.

2. Initial training for group freefall skills should begin as soon as the student completes Category F of the ISP—

a. to maintain interest in skydiving

b. to encourage relaxation in the air

c. to develop coordination

d. to establish participation in group activities

e. to encourage the development of safe attitudes and procedures

3. Initial training should begin with no more than two jumpers—the trainee and a USPA instructional rating holder.

4. A recommended training outline for beginning group freefall skills is included in Categories G and H of the ISP.

C. Breakoff

1. The minimum breakoff altitude should be—

a. for groups of five or fewer, at least 1,500 feet higher than the highest planned deployment altitude in the group (not counting one camera flyer)

b. for groups of six or more, at least 2,000 feet higher than the highest planned deployment altitude in the group (not counting a signaling deployment or camera flyers)

c. higher than these recommendations for the following:

(1) groups with one or more jumpers of lower experience

(2) jumpers with slower-opening or faster-flying canopies

(3) jumpers engaging in freefall activities that involve a fall rate faster than belly to earth terminal velocity

(4) jumps involving props, toys, or other special equipment, (signs, banners, smoke, flags, hoops, tubes, items released in freefall, etc.)

(5) jumps taking place over an unfamiliar landing area or in case of an off-field landing (bad spot recognized in freefall)

(6) other special considerations

2. At the breakoff signal or upon reaching the breakoff altitude, each participant should:

a. turn 180-degrees from the center of the formation

b. flat track away to the planned deployment altitude (flat tracking will achieve more separation than diving)

3. Opening:

a. The pull should be preceded by a distinct wave-off to signal jumpers who may be above.

b. During the wave-off, one should look down and to the sides to ensure that the area is clear.

c. The low person has the right-of-way, both in freefall and under canopy.

D. Other references

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1. See SIM Section 6-2, "Freeflying, Freestyle Skydiving, and Skysurfing Recommendations" for information about group flying in vertical orientations.

2. See SIM Section 6-4, "Night Jump Recommendations" for guidance on jumping in groups at night.

Section 6-2: Freeflying, freestyle, and skysurfing

Contents:
A. The scope of freeflying
B. Qualifications
C. Equipment
D. Training
E. Hazards associated with group freeflying

A. The scope of freeflying

1. These recommendations provide guidance for vertical freefall body positions, generally associated with significantly higher fall rates and rapid changes in relative speed.

2. The diverse freefall speeds among jumpers engaged in different freefall activities affect separation between individuals and groups exiting on the same pass over the drop zone.

3. The term "freeflying" in this context is applied to all activities that incorporate standing, head-down, or sitting freefall positions, including freestyle and skysurfing.

B. Qualifications

1. Before engaging in freeflying, the skydiver should either:

a. hold a USPA A license

b. receive freeflying instruction from a USPA instructional rating holder with extensive freeflying experience

2. The skydiver should have demonstrated sufficient air skills, including:

a. consistent altitude awareness

b. basic formation skydiving skills

c. ability to track to achieve horizontal separation

d. understanding of the jump run line of flight

e. proficiency in movement up, down, forward, backward, and rotation in a sit position before attempting standing or head-down maneuvers

C. Equipment

1. Gear must be properly secured to prevent premature deployment of either canopy.

a. A premature opening at the speeds involved in this type of skydiving could result in severe injury to the body or stressing the equipment beyond limits set by the manufacturers.

b. Deployment systems and operation handles should remain secure during inverted and stand-up flight; therefore, equipment for freeflying should include:

(1) bottom-of-container mounted throw-out pilot chute pouch, pull-out pilot chute, or ripcord main deployment system

(i) Exposed leg-strap-mounted pilot chutes present an extreme hazard.

(ii) Any exposed pilot chute bridle presents a hazard.

(2) closing loops, pin protection flaps, and riser covers well maintained and properly sized

2. Harness straps

a. Leg straps should be connected with a seat strap to keep the leg straps from moving toward the knees while in a sitting freefall position or making transitions.

b. Excess leg and chest straps should be tightly stowed.

3. Automatic activation devices are recommended because of the high potential for collisions and loss of altitude awareness associated with freeflying.

4. In the case of skysurfing boards, a board release system that can be activated with either hand without bending at the waist is recommended.

5. Personal accessories for freeflying should include:

a. audible altimeter (two are recommended)

b. visual altimeter

c. hard helmet

d. clothing or jumpsuit that will remain in place during inverted and stand-up freefall and will not obscure or obstruct deployment or emergency handles or altimeters

D. Training

1. Freeflying has many things in common with face-to-earth formation skydiving.

a. A beginner will progress much faster and more safely with a coach.

b. Novices should not jump with each other until--

(1) receiving basic training in freeflying

(2) demonstrating ability to control movement up, down, forward, and backward during rotation

2. Prior to jumping with larger groups, progress should follow the same model as for the freefall and canopy formation disciplines: 2-way formations of novice and coach to develop exit, body position, docking, transition, and breakoff skills.

E. Hazards associated with group freeflying

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1. Inadvertently transitioning from a fast-falling body position to a face-to-earth position ("corking") results in rapid deceleration from typically 175 mph to 120 mph.

a. Freeflying in a group requires the ability to:

(1) remain in a fast-flying position at all times

(2) remain clear of the airspace above other freeflyers

b. Assuming a fast-falling position when the other skydivers are in a slow-falling position puts the freeflyer below the formation, creating a hazard at break-off.

2. Freeflying offers more potential for loss of altitude awareness than traditional skydiving for several reasons.

a. Higher speeds mean shorter freefalls.

(1) Face-to-earth freefall time from 13,000 feet to routine deployment altitudes takes about 60-65 seconds.

(2) Typical freefly times from 13,000 feet may be as short as 40 seconds.

b. Head-down and sit-fly positions present a different visual picture of the earth; freeflyers may not be visually aware of their altitude.

c. Visual altimeters can be difficult to read in some body positions.

d. Audible altimeters can be hard to hear in the higher wind noise associated with freefly speeds.

e. As with other skydiving disciplines, participants must guard against focusing on an unimportant goal and losing track of the more important aspects of the skydive: time and altitude.

3. Horizontal drift

a. Novice freeflyers sometimes drift laterally in freefall.

(1) An experienced coach can correct the problem.

(2) On solo jumps, freeflyers should practice movement perpendicular to the line of flight (90 degrees to jump run heading).

(3) Separation from other groups can be enhanced by tracking perpendicular to the line of flight at a routine breakoff altitude.

b. Experienced freeflyers must also be aware of lateral movement when coaching novices or performing dives involving horizontal movement.

c. All skydivers on loads mixing freeflyers and traditional formation skydiving must consider the overall effect of the wind on their drift during freefall.

d. As a general rule, faster-falling groups should leave after slower-falling groups particularly when jump run is flown against a strong headwind.

4. Faster-falling groups should delay canopy flight downwind and remain in position to allow jumpers who exited before them, but who fell slower, to deploy and then turn downwind also.

5. Loss of visual contact with other skydivers:

a. The rapid changes in vertical separation that can occur in freefly positions makes it easy to lose contact with others on the dive.

b. Even jumpers with extensive experience in formation skydiving may have trouble locating everyone on a freefly dive.

c. Breakoff can be more confusing than usual.

d. Important considerations in planning a freefly dive are:

(1) Keep the size of the groups small until proficient.

(2) Plan higher breakoffs than usual.

(3) Transition from fast-fall rate to normal tracking for separation gradually in case of a skydiver above the formation in a high-speed descent.

(4) Avoid maneuvers near breakoff that increase vertical separation.

(5) It is as important to slow down after breakoff as it is to get separation from other jumpers.

Section 6-3: Freefall Rate of Descent and Time Table

Contents:
A. A logging aid
B. Computation

A. A logging aid

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1. The following table will assist in estimating the approximate amount of freefall time to be expected from a given altitude and in logging the correct amount of freefall time for a given jump.

2. Each skydiver should log every jump made, including the amount of freefall time experienced.

3. The amount of freefall time logged for each jump should be actual time.

Back to Section 6-3

B. Computation

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1. Many factors affect the rate of fall or terminal velocity in freefall.

a. total weight of the jumper including equipment

b. the surface area-to-weight ratio

c. jumpsuit

d. altitude above sea level (air density)

e. skydiving discipline, e.g., vertical orientations

2. The chart lists freefall times based on three different typical terminal velocities and provides an exit altitude reference for 3,000-foot openings.

a. 120 mph (176 feet per second) for belly-to earth orientation

b. 160 mph (235 feet per second) for vertical head-down or standing orientation

c. 50 mph (73.3 feet per second) for wing-suit jumps

3. To determine the approximate amount of freefall time to expect on a jump and to log a realistic amount of freefall time for a jump, use the following procedures:

a. Determine your approximate terminal velocity by taking actual measurements of jumps with known exit and opening altitudes (this can be done by timing video tapes, by having someone on the ground time the skydive, or using a recording altimeter).

b. Subtract your opening altitude from your exit altitude to determine the length of your freefall.

c. Use the chart to estimate your freefall time according to your approximate terminal velocity and the distance in freefall.

Click here to see the Freefall Time Table.

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Section 6-4: Night jumps

Contents:
A. Why jump at night?
B. Qualifications
C. Challenges
D. Special equipment
E. Procedures
F. General
G. Group jumps: freefall and canopy

A. Why jump at night?

1. Night jumps can be challenging, educational, and fun, but they require greater care on the part of the jumper, pilot, spotter, and ground crew.

2. As with all phases of skydiving, night jumping can be made safer through special training, suitable equipment, pre-planning, and good judgment.

3. Every skydiver, regardless of experience, should participate in night-jump training to learn or review:

a. techniques of avoiding disorientation

b. use of identification light, lighted instruments, and flashlight

c. target lighting

d. ground-to-air communications

e. reserve activation

4. To maintain safety and comply with FAA Regulations, any jumps between sunset and sunrise are considered as night jumps.

5. Night jumps to meet license requirements and to establish world records must take place between one hour after official sunset and one hour before official sunrise.

B. Qualifications

1. Skydivers participating in night jumping should meet all the requirements for a USPA B or higher license.

2. Participants should complete a comprehensive briefing and drill immediately prior to the intended night jump.

a. The training should be conducted by a USPA Safety & Training Advisor (S&TA), Instructor Examiner, or Instructor, who holds a USPA D license.

b. The training (including the date and location) should be documented in the jumper's logbook and signed by the USPA S&TA, I/E, or Instructor.

C. Challenges

1. Night jumps provide the challenge of a new and unusual situation that must be approached with caution because of:

a. the opportunity for disorientation

b. the new appearance of the earth's surface and the lack of familiar reference points

c. Vision and depth perception are greatly impaired by darkness.

d. Be thoroughly familiar with the effects of hypoxia (oxygen deprivation) on night vision (from the FAA Airmen's Information Manual on the internet. Click here for the page.):

(1) One of the first effects of hypoxia, evident as low as 5,000 feet, is loss of night vision.

(2) It takes approximately 30 minutes to recover from the effects of hypoxia.

(3) Smokers suffer the effects of hypoxia sooner than non-smokers.

(4) Carbon monoxide from exhaust fumes, deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and prolonged exposure to bright sunlight all degrade night vision.

e. Night vision requires 30 minutes to fully adjust.

2. A jumper's own shadow cast by the moon can resemble another jumper below and cause confusion.

3. Skydivers infrequently make night jumps, and are less familiar with and less proficient in handling themselves under the conditions of this new environment.

4. Since the skydiver cannot perceive what is taking place as rapidly and easily as in daylight, it takes more time to react to each situation.

D. Special equipment

1. A light visible for at least three statute miles displayed from opening until the jumper is on the ground (an FAA requirement for protection from aircraft)

2. Lighted altimeter

3. Clear goggles

4. Jumper manifest

5. Flashlight to check canopy

6. Whistle

a. to warn other jumpers under canopy

b. for after landing to signal other jumpers

c. to aid rescuers in locating a lost or injured jumper

7. Sufficient lighting to illuminate the target

a. Lighting can be provided by flashlights, electric lights, or such devices.

b. Road flares or other pyrotechnics and open flames can be extremely hazardous and should not be used.

c. Automobiles can be used for lighting, but they clutter the landing area.

8. Cycle the automatic activation device to ensure it is within the time-frame operational limits for the night jump.

E. Procedures

1. General

a. Night jumps should be conducted in light winds.

b. visibility

(1) Night jumps should be made only in clear atmospheric conditions with minimum clouds.

(2) Moonlight greatly increases visibility and night-jump safety.

c. advice and notification

(1) Consult the local S&TA or a USPA Instructor Examiner for advice for conducting night jumps (required by the BSRs).

(2) Notify FAA, state, and local officials as required.

d. Use a topographical map or photo with FAA Flight Service weather information for appropriate altitude and surface winds to compute jump run compass heading and exit and opening point.

e. One senior member should be designated jumpmaster for each pass and be responsible for accounting for all members of that pass once everyone has landed.

2. Target configuration for accuracy:

a. Arrange lights in a circle around the target area at a radius of 25 meters from the center.

b. Remove three or four of the lights closest to the wind line on the downwind side of the target and arrange them in a line leading into the target area.

(1) This will indicate both wind line and wind direction.

(2) By following a flight path over this line of lights, the jumper will be on the wind line and land upwind.

c. Place a red light at dead center, protected by a plexiglass cover flush with the surface.

3. Emergency: Extinguish all lights in the event of adverse weather or other hazardous jump conditions to indicate "no jump."

4. Ground-to-air radio communications should be available.

5. Night Spotting:

a. Current wind information for both surface and aloft conditions is critical at night.

b. Spotters should familiarize themselves with the drop zone and surrounding area in flight during daylight, noting ground points that will display lights at night and their relationship to the drop zone and any hazardous areas.

c. The spotter should plan to use both visual spotting and aircraft instruments to assure accurate positioning of the aircraft.

d. During the climb to altitude, familiarize each jumper with the night landmarks surrounding the drop zone.

F. General

1. A jumper making a first night jump should exit solo (no group skydiving).

2. Strobe lights are not recommended for use in freefall, because they can interfere with night vision and cause disorientation.

a. Constant lights are preferable.

b. Flashing lights can be used once the jumper has opened and is in full control under canopy.

3. Warning on pyrotechnics:

a. Road flares and other pyrotechnics exude hot melted chemicals while burning and are hazardous when used by skydivers in freefall.

b. In addition, the bright glare greatly increases the possibility of disorientation.

G. Group jumps: freefall and canopy

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1. Freefall

a. It is recommended that night relative work be planned for a full moon.

b. Skydivers should wear white or light-colored jumpsuits.

c. A safe progression from a 2-way to larger formations should be made on subsequent night jumps.

2. Under canopy:

a. With others in the air, jumpers should fly predictably and avoid spirals.

b. All jumpers on each pass should agree to the same downwind, base, and final approach and the altitudes for turns to each leg of the landing pattern.

3. Jumpers planning canopy formations should practice together during daylight and rehearse prior to boarding for each night jump.

a. It is recommended that night canopy formation activity be performed during a full moon.

b. Brightly colored clothing should be worn by all jumpers.

c. Lighting

(1) Constant beam lights are preferred.

(2) Strobes can interfere with night vision and depth perception.

Section 6-5: Water landings

Contents:
A. Why jump in the water?
B. Training for unintentional water landings
C. Intentional water landings
D. High performance landings in water
E. Water jump safety checks and briefings

A. Why jump in the water?

1. A number of fatalities have resulted from accidental water landings, usually because of the absence of flotation gear, use of incorrect procedures, and landing in extremely cold water.

2. Water landing training is recommended to improve chances for survival from both intentional and unintentional water landings.

3. The purpose of wet training (required for the USPA B license) is to expose the individual to a worst-case scenario in a controlled situation.

a. Drownings are usually brought on by panic.

b. Proper training should decrease the likelihood of panic and therefore decrease the likelihood of a drowning.

4. The potential always exists for unintentional water entry due to spotting error, radical wind changes, malfunctions, and landing under a reserve rather than a main.

5. Intentional water jumps are preplanned jumps into a body of water.

a. With a few additional precautions, a water jump can be the easiest and safest of all skydives.

b. Physical injuries and drownings are almost unknown on preplanned, intentional water landings.

6. These recommendations provide the USPA S&TA, Instructor Examiner, and Instructor with guidelines to train skydivers to effectively deal with water hazards.

7. This section covers recommendations, procedures, and references for the following:

a. training considerations for unintentional water landings

b. wet training for water landings, both unintentional and intentional

c. intentional water jumps

B. Training for unintentional water landings

1. In the USPA Integrated Student Program, training recommendations for unintentional water landings are included in the obstacle landing training of Category A (the first-jump course).

2. A more complete and detailed briefing outline is contained in SIM Section 5-1.F.

Dry (theoretical training)

1. This training (including the date and location) should be documented in the student's logbook and A-license application or on a separate statement and signed by a USPA S&TA, I/E, or Instructor.

2. Theoretical training should include classroom lessons covering:

a. techniques for avoiding water hazards

b. how to compensate for poor depth perception over water

c. preparation for water entry

d. recovery after landing

3. Practice should combine both ground and training harness drills and should continue until the jumper is able to perform the procedures in a reasonable amount of time.

Wet (practical training)

1. Wet training

a. should be conducted following a class on theory

b. should take place in a suitable environment such as a swimming pool, lake, or other body of water at least six feet deep

c. meets the USPA B license training requirements for intentional water landings

2. This training (including the date and location) should be documented in the jumper's logbook and signed by a USPA S&TA, I/E, or Instructor.

3. Safety personnel should include properly trained and certified lifeguards.

a. If suitably qualified skydivers are not available, assistance may normally be solicited from the local American Red Cross or other recognized training organization.

b. Flotation gear and other lifesaving apparatus is recommended for non-swimmers.

c. Persons conducting this training need to consider the safety of the participants.

4. Review all theoretical and practical training.

5. Initial training may be conducted in swimsuits, but final training is to be conducted in normal jump clothing to simulate a water landing.

a. Non-swimmer: Training is to include basic skills covering breath control, bobbing, and front and back floating.

b. Swimmer: Training is to include all of the above, plus the breast stroke, side stroke, back stroke, and treading water.

6. While wearing a parachute harness and container system and all associated equipment, jump into the water.

a. The USPA Instructor should then cast an open canopy over the jumper before any wave action subsides.

b. Any type of canopy may be used.

c. The jumper should then perform the steps necessary to escape from the equipment and the water.

d. Repeat this drill until proficient.

C. Intentional water landings

1. Any person intending to make an intentional water landing should:

a. undergo preparatory training within 60 days of the water jump

(1) The training should be conducted by an S&TA, Instructor Examiner, or USPA Instructor.

(2) The training (including the date and location) should be documented in the jumper's logbook and signed by a USPA S&TA, I/E or Instructor.

b. hold a USPA A license and have undergone wet training for water landings

c. be a swimmer

2. Theoretical training should include classroom lessons covering:

a. preparations necessary for safe operations

b. equipment to be used

c. procedures for the actual jump

d. recovery of jumpers and equipment

e. care of equipment

3. Preparation

a. Obtain advice for the water jump from the local USPA S&TA or I/E (required by the BSRs).

b. Check the landing site for underwater hazards.

c. Use an altimeter for freefalls of 30 seconds or more.

d. Provide no less than one recovery boat per jumper, or, if the aircraft drops one jumper per pass, one boat for every three jumpers.

e. Boat personnel should include at least one qualified skydiver and stand-by swimmer with face mask, swim fins, and experience in lifesaving techniques, including resuscitation.

f. Each jumper should be thoroughly briefed concerning the possible emergencies that may occur after water entry and the proper corrective procedures.

g. opening altitude

(1) Jumpers should open no less than 3,000 feet AGL to provide ample time to prepare for water entry.

(2) This is especially true when the DZ is a small body of water and the jumper must concentrate on both accuracy and water entry.

h. A second jump run should not be made until all jumpers from the first pass are safely aboard the pickup boat(s).

4. After canopy inflation: In calm conditions with readily accessible pick-up boats, the best procedure is simply to inflate the flotation gear and concentrate on landing in the proper area.

5. Landing

a. In strong winds, choppy water conditions, in competitive water jump events, or if the flotation gear can not be inflated, separation from equipment after water entry is essential.

b. Instruments:

(1) Water may damage some altimeters and automatic activation devices.

(2) Skydivers jumping without standard instruments and AADs should use extra care.

D. High performance landings in water

Refer to SIM Section 6-10, Performance Canopy Flight, for more information on performance canopy landings.

1. Water may reduce injuries for jumpers who slightly misjudge high-performance landings, but jumpers have been seriously injured or killed after hitting the water too hard.

2. Jumpers should obtain coaching from an experienced high-performance canopy pilot familiar with water hazard approaches and contact prior to attempting high-performance landings across water.

3. Raised banks at the approach entry and exit from the body of water present a serious hazard.

4. An injury upon landing in a water hazard can increase the jumper's risk of drowning, so high-performance landings involving water should be approached with the standard water landing precautions, including the use of a flotation device.

5. The area around the body of water should be clear of hazards and spectators in case high-speed contact with the water causes the jumper to lose control.

E. Water jump safety checks and briefings

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1. A complete equipment check should be performed with particular attention to any additional equipment to be used or carried for the water jump (refer to SIM Section 5-4 on equipment checks).

2. Boat and ground crew briefings:

a. communications procedures (smoke, radio, buoys, boats)

b. wind limitations

c. jump order

d. control of spectators and other boats

e. setting up the target

f. maintenance of master log

g. how to approach a jumper and canopy in the water (direction, proximity)

Section 6-6: Canopy formations

Contents:
A. What is canopy relative work?
B. General
C. Qualifications and initial training
D. Equipment
E. Rules of engagement
F. Emergency procedures
G. Night canopy formations

A. What is canopy relative work?

1. Canopy Formation (CF) is the name of the competition discipline for the skydiving activity commonly called canopy relative work (CRW) or "crew."

2. Canopy formations are built by the intentional maneuvering of two or more open parachute canopies in close proximity to or in contact with one another during flight.

3. The most basic canopy formation is the joining of two canopies vertically during flight as a stack or plane (compressed stack).

4. Canopy formations, both day and night, may be accomplished by experienced canopy formation specialists leading the dives.

B. General

1. This section recommends procedures considered by canopy formation specialists to be the safest and most predictable, as well as productive.

2. The concept of canopy relative work is that of smooth flow and grace between two or more jumpers and their canopies in flight.

3. Jumper-to jumper collisions or hard docks that result in deflated canopies or entanglements can result in serious injury or death.

C. Qualifications and initial training

1. Before engaging in canopy formations, a jumper should have:

a. thorough knowledge of canopy flight characteristics, to include riser maneuvers and an understanding of the relative compatibility of various canopies

b. demonstrated accuracy capability of consistently landing within five meters of a target

2. For the first few jumps, begin with stacks and planes, as offset formations are less stable.

3. Initial training should be conducted with two jumpers--the beginner and a canopy formation
specialist--and include lessons in basic docking, breakoff procedures, and emergency procedures.

D. Equipment

1. The following items are essential for safely building canopy formations:

a. hook knife-necessary for resolving entanglements

b. ankle protection

(1) Adequate socks prevent abrasion from canopy lines.

(2) If boots are used, cover any exposed metal hooks.

c. gloves for hand protection

d. Self-retracting or removable pilot chute bridle systems are recommended.

e. cross connectors

(1) A secure foothold at the top of the risers is essential for building planes, which can develop greater tension as they grow larger.

(2) Cross connectors should be attached between the front and rear risers only, not from side to side.

(3) Side-to-side cross connectors can snag on the reserve container during deployment and cause a dangerous entanglement.

2. The following items are strongly recommended for safely building canopy formations:

a. altimeter-provides altitude information for dock, abort, and entanglement decisions

b. protective headgear-should allow adequate hearing capability for voice commands in addition to collision protection

c. long pants and sleeves for protection from line abrasions

d. extended or enlarged toggles that can be easily grasped

e. cascades-recommended to be removed from the two center A lines, which should be marked in red

E. Rules of engagement

1. Weather considerations:

a. Avoid jumping in turbulent air or gusty wind conditions.

b. Early morning and early evening jumps are recommended in areas subject to thermal turbulence and other unstable air conditions.

c. Avoid passing near clouds, which are associated with unpredictable air conditions.

d. Use caution in flying formations over plowed fields, paved surfaces, or other areas where thermal conditions often exist.

e. When encountering bumpy or unexpected turbulent air, it is recommended that all efforts be made to fly the formation directly into the wind.

2. Factors that must be considered in every pre-jump briefing include:

a. exit order

b. time between exits

c. length of freefall

d. designation of base-pin

e. canopy wing loading and trim

f. order of entry

g. direction of flight and techniques of rendezvous

h. approach and breakoff traffic patterns

i. docking procedures

j. formation flight procedures

k. one-word verbal commands

l. breakoff and landing procedures

m. emergency procedures

3. Exit and opening procedures:

a. Spotting procedures should allow for upper-wind velocity and direction.

b. The aircraft pilot should be advised that a canopy formation group is exiting and opening high.

c. Exits should be made at one- to three-second intervals.

d. Any opening delay should be adequate to assure clearance from the aircraft, jumper separation, and stable body position at opening.

e. Each jumper must be prepared to avoid a collision at any time upon leaving the aircraft.

4. Docking procedures:

a. base-pin

(1) This position requires the most expertise of all; however, these skills are used in all slots.

(2) Discuss the methods to be used to dock before boarding the aircraft.

b. Formation flight course: It is important that the formation pilot maintain a constant direction of flight along a predetermined course.

c. Traffic patterns: Establish an orderly flight pattern for canopies attempting to dock.

(1) An orderly pattern will enable approaches to be made without interference and lessen the possibility of canopy collisions.

(2) No canopies should ever pass in front of a formation; the wake turbulence created will disturb the formation's stability and could lead to a very dangerous situation.

d. Approaches:

(1) For smoothness and safety, each person entering the formation after base-pin should enter from behind and below, never crossing from one side of the formation to the other.

(2) Moderate angles of approach are recommended.

e. Docking:

(1) Only the center section of a docking canopy should be grasped when the canopy closes third or later in a stack formation.

(2) To complete the stack dock, the top jumper places both feet between both A lines of the center cell of the lower jumper and hooks one by each instep.

(3) A center cell dock is preferred for beginners.

f. Collapses:

(1) Improper docks are the most common cause of collapsed canopies.

(2) Collapsed canopies should be released to allow reinflation only if it will not make the situation worse.

(3) To prevent dropping an entangled jumper into a potential collision, make sure the area behind and below is clear.

(4) Experienced participants may be able to reinflate a collapsed canopy by continuing to plane down the lines.

(5) The jumper with the collapsed canopy can try using brakes or rear risers to back the canopy off and reinflate it.

(6) The term "drop me" should be used by a jumper wishing to be released from the formation.

(i) This command is to be obeyed immediately, unless it will drop the jumper into a worse situation.

(Ii) The jumper issuing the command should be sure to check behind for other canopies on approach before asking to be dropped.

5. Formation flight procedures:

a. Verbal commands should be concise and direct.

b. There should be no non-essential conversation.

c. The pilot should fly the formation with limited control movements to minimize oscillations and facilitate docking.

d. The formation pilot should never use deep brakes in the formation.

e. Oscillations

(1) Oscillations are a primary concern in canopy formations, because they can result in collapsed canopies and entanglements.
(2) To reduce their effect and frequency, jumpers in the formation can--

(i) when on the bottom of the formation, sit still in the harness and cross their legs

(ii) maintain an arch

(iii) if on the bottom, apply the appropriate control to reduce or increase tension

(iv) manipulate a lower jumper's lines to dampen the oscillation

(v) drop the bottom jumper before the oscillation develops into something worse

6. Diamonds and offsets

a. Diamonds and offsets require different flying techniques from vertical formations.

b. It is imperative to get properly trained before attempting them.

7. Breakoff and landing procedures:

a. Approaches and docking should stop no lower than 2,500 feet AGL.

b. Formation pilots should avoid all obstacles, including suspected areas of thermal activity, such as paved surfaces, plowed fields, buildings, etc.

c. The landing of canopy formations should be attempted by only those with a high level of CRW proficiency.

d. Breakoff for landing should take place no lower than 2,500 feet AGL, because of the danger of entanglement at breakoff time.

e. Jumpers should not attempt to land formations in high or gusty winds, high density altitudes, or high field elevations.

f. CRW groups landing off the airport should try to land together.

F. Emergency procedures:

1. Entanglements are the greatest hazards when building canopy formations.

2. Jumpers should know their altitude at all times, because altitude will often dictate the course of action.

3. If a collision is imminent:

a. The jumpers should spread one arm and both legs as wide as possible to reduce the possibility of penetrating the suspension lines.

b. The other hand is used to protect the reserve ripcord.

4. Jumpers should be specific in discussing their intentions.

5. If altitude allows, emergency procedures should proceed only after acknowledgment by other jumper(s).

6. In the event of multiple cutaways and if altitude allows, jumpers should stagger reserve openings to avoid possible canopy collisions.

7. Respond to the given situation.

a. When entanglements occur, jumpers must be prepared to react quickly and creatively.

b. In many cases, the emergency is one that can't be prepared for in advance; it may even be a problem no one imagined could happen.

8. If the entanglement occurs with sufficient altitude, the jumpers should attempt to clear the entanglement by following lines out before initiating emergency procedures.

9. Jumpers should try to land together following a canopy relative work emergency.

G. Night canopy formations

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See SIM Section 6-4, "Night Jump Recommendations," for guidance.

Section 6-7: High altitude and oxygen use

Contents:
A. Preparation and planning critical
B. Scope
C. Altitude classifications
D. Experience recommended
E. Training recommendations
F. Recommended equipment
G. Recommended preparations
H. Oxygen use procedures
I. Spotting procedures
J. Hazards of openings at higher altitudes

A. Preparation and planning critical

1. Skydives from altitudes higher than 15,000 feet above mean sea level (MSL) present the participants with a new range of important considerations.

2. The reduced oxygen, lower atmospheric pressure and temperature, and the higher winds and airspeed above 15,000 feet MSL make skydiving more hazardous in this region than at lower altitudes.

3. Hypoxia, or oxygen deficiency, is the most immediate concern at higher altitudes.

a. Hypoxia can result in impaired judgement and even unconsciousness and death.

b. Hypoxia can be prevented by the use of supplemental oxygen and procedures not required for skydives from lower altitudes.

4. With proper training, adequate equipment, and well-planned procedures, high altitude skydives can be conducted within acceptable safety limits; without such precautions, they may result in disaster.

B. Scope

1. These recommendations are presented to familiarize skydivers with:

a. altitude classifications

b. experience recommendations

c. training recommendations

d. equipment recommendations

e. procedural recommendations

2. General information is provided on the accompanying Planning Chart.

C. Altitude classifications

1. Low altitude: below 15,000 feet MSL

2. Intermediate altitude: from 15,000 feet up to 20,000 feet MSL

3. High altitude: from 20,000 feet up to 40,000 feet MSL

4. Extreme altitude: above 40,000 feet MSL

D. Experience recommended

1. For intermediate-altitude jumps (15,000-20,000 feet MSL), participants should hold at least a
USPA B license and have made 100 jumps.

2. For high-altitude jumps (20,000-40,000 feet MSL), participants should:

a. hold a USPA C license

b. have made at least one jump from 15,000 feet MSL or below using the same functioning bailout oxygen system

3. For extreme-altitude jumps (40,000 feet MSL and higher), participants should:

a. hold a USPA D license

b. have made at least two jumps from below 35,000 feet MSL using the same functioning bailout oxygen and pressure systems

E. Training recommendations

1. It is a benefit for participants on intermediate-altitude skydives to have completed physiological flight training (PFT) within the preceding 12 months.

2. It is essential for all participants on high- and extreme-altitude skydives to have completed PFT within the preceding 12 months.

3. PFT availability:

a. The FAA's Civil Aerospace Medical Institute offers a one-day aviation physiology course at any of 16 U.S. locations with a hypobaric chamber that creates high-altitude and rapid-decompression scenarios.

b. To attend training, applicants for PFT must hold at least a current FAA class 3 medical certificate.

4. The PFT course:

a. familiarizes the skydiver with the problems encountered in the high-altitude environment

b. introduces basic high-altitude oxygen and pressure equipment and its use

c. provides the opportunity to discover individual reactions to hypoxia and other altitude diseases through simulated high-altitude flights in a decompression chamber

5. Applications:

a. First, view the CAMI web site at by clicking here, and select the training site convenient to you.

b. Then call 405-954-4837 to make application over the phone (when asked for aircraft type, state "skydiver;" when asked for company, state "USPA member.")

F. Recommended equipment

1. General:

a. A sensitive altimeter and adequate protective clothing are recommended for skydives from above 15,000 feet MSL in addition to the oxygen and body pressurization equipment listed below.

b. In the event of a malfunction in the primary systems and components, backup oxygen systems and components should be available on board the aircraft

2. Intermediate-altitude jumps: A separate oxygen mask should be provided for each skydiver and aircrew member, although a common central oxygen bottle and regulator system may be used.

3. High-altitude jumps:

a. All skydivers must be equipped with an appropriate on-board oxygen source and compatible bailout oxygen system, preferably with a backup bottle (see Planning Chart following this section).

b. An automatic activation device (AAD) is recommended.

4. Extreme-altitude jumps:

a. All skydivers must be equipped with compatible onboard and bailout oxygen and body pressurization systems appropriate to the goal altitude.

b. An AAD is recommended.

G. Recommended preparations

1. General:

a. All jumps must be coordinated in advance with the appropriate local, state, and federal aviation authorities.

b. All jumps should be coordinated in advance with USPA for safety and for establishing new national and international skydiving records under the FAI Sporting Code.

2. Oxygen monitor:

a. For group jumps from above 15,000 feet MSL, it is helpful to appoint an oxygen monitor whose duties are to:

(1) inspect, operate, and monitor the oxygen systems during their use

(2) watch for symptoms of hypoxia and other altitude diseases in all jumpers

(3) initiate appropriate remedial measures in the event of oxygen equipment malfunction or jumper illness

(4) see that oxygen equipment is properly stowed before exit

b. There should be one oxygen monitor for each six persons or each oxygen bottle, whichever is fewer.

3. Communications in the aircraft are extremely limited by the wearing of oxygen masks.

a. The spotter and oxygen monitor should establish with the jumpers and aircrew a standard set of hand signals for the commands, inquiries, and responses required during flight.

b. A small blackboard or similar device may be helpful for communicating lengthier messages.

4. Warning: Oxygen explosively accelerates burning.

a. To prevent damage to aircraft and equipment and injury to persons from oxygen-fed flash fires, the aircraft should be electrically grounded during all ground practice.

b. No smoking should be permitted in the vicinity of the aircraft, either on the ground or aloft, while oxygen equipment is on board.

5. Ground practice

a. Ground practice is essential because of—

(1) restrictions on communication

(2) the additional pre-exit activities required

(3) restricted vision (by the mask)

(4) restricted movement

(i) results from bulkier clothing

(ii) is often further irritated by long periods of sitting and low cabin temperatures during the climb to jump altitude

b. Signals and exit procedures should be practiced on the ground in the actual jump aircraft until everyone can perform the procedures—

(1) by hand-signal command

(2) smoothly and without discussion

c. Practice will prevent confusion aloft that may result from inadequate rehearsal.

6. Equipment checks:

a. Equipment should be checked prior to loading the aircraft and especially before exit.

b. In addition, the oxygen monitor should perform the "P.D. McCRIPE" oxygen equipment inspection:

P. pressure gauge
D. diaphragm
M. mask
C. connections at mask
C. connections at disconnect
R. regulator
I. indicator
P. portable unit (walk-around bottle)
E. emergency cylinders (bailout bottles)

H. Oxygen use procedures

Oxygen use procedures will vary with the equipment used, but the following are basic.

1. Intermediate altitude:

a. All participants should put on masks and begin breathing oxygen at 8,000 feet MSL.

(1) Breathing should be continuous throughout the remainder of the climb and jump run.

(2) This procedure should be conducted under the supervision of the oxygen monitor.

(3) This procedure is important (even if it doesn't seem necessary), especially if more than one jump per day is planned.

b. Two minutes from exit—

(1) The spotter signals "get ready."

(2) At this time, all jumpers move into the ready position and prepare to remove their oxygen masks.

c. prior to exit—

(1) Jumpers should stay on oxygen for as long as possible, removing their masks at the "climbout" or "exit" signal.

(2) The spotter need do nothing further than signal or lead the exit.

d. In the event of an aborted jump run, the oxygen masks should be redistributed and donned, a wide orbit made, and the process repeated, with all skydivers again breathing oxygen until within 30 seconds of exit.

2. High altitude:

a. All skydivers should pre-breathe 100% oxygen under the supervision of the oxygen monitor for 30 minutes prior to takeoff when goal altitude is above 25,000 feet MSL.

b. When goal altitude is lower than 25,000 feet MSL, all skydivers should begin breathing from their onboard oxygen source at 8,000 feet MSL, under the supervision of the oxygen monitor.

c. Five minutes before exit, the spotter signals "get ready."

d. Two minutes from exit—

(1) The spotter signals two fingers and gives the command to activate bailout bottles, activates his own and, when he feels its pressure, disconnects from the aircraft oxygen system.

(2) To prevent goggles from fogging, jumpers should leave their goggles raised until bailout bottle activation is completed.

e. Once on the bailout bottle, the spotter goes back to spotting.

(1) The oxygen monitor gives the spotter the "thumbs up" signal when all other jumpers have functioning bailout bottles and are disconnected from the aircraft oxygen.

(2) The spotter then need only signal or lead the exit.

f. In the event of malfunction of the skydiver's first bailout bottle, there is sufficient time (two minutes) to switch to the backup bottle.

(1) In the event that no backup bottle is carried, the skydiver would be forced to remain connected to the aircraft oxygen system.

(2) After the other jumpers exit, the jumper should descend to 20,000 feet MSL or lower, then jump or land with the aircraft.

3. Extreme altitude: Standard procedures are not established, but must be developed for the specific mission and equipment.

I. Spotting procedures

1. Direction of the wind at altitude and on the surface may not coincide.

a. Winds aloft may also be stronger than surface winds (the jet stream is found at high altitude).

b. Adjust the exit point for freefall drift to allow for winds aloft.

c. Exit point and opening point will not coincide.

2. The higher ground speeds attained by an aircraft indicating the same airspeed as usual at lower altitude radically increases the distance of forward throw that will be encountered on exit.

3. To calculate the exit point, consult FAA Flight Service for the winds aloft up to the planned exit altitude.

a. Using an average freefall rate of 10,000 feet per minute, compute the time required to freefall through each different layer of wind direction and speed reported.

b. Insert the time and wind speed figure into the following equation and solve for wind drift through each layer: Drift = Wind Velocity x Time of Exposure

(1) The time component of wind speed and time of exposure must both be expressed in or converted to the same units, (i.e., feet per second and seconds, miles per hour and hours).

(2) The drift distance will then be expressed in the same unit as the distance unit of the wind speed figure.

4. Use a sheet of acetate, a grease pencil, and a map or aerial photo of the DZ and surrounding area to plot the exit point.

a. On the acetate, mark a north-south reference line.

b. Then beginning with the topmost wind layer and proceeding to the lowest layer:

(1) In the same scale as the map or photo, plot the computed wind drift for each by a line.

(2) Join the beginning of the line representing the drift anticipated in the next lower layer to the end of the line from the one above.

c. The resulting zigzag line represents the total wind drift expected during freefall, without tracking.

d. In the opposite direction of the exit altitude wind drift (or in the direction of the jump run if it is not to coincide with the wind direction) add 2,000 feet to compensate for forward throw from the aircraft.

5. Throw wind-drift indicators at the planned opening altitude to determine the opening point, then, orient the acetate over the photo or map.

a. Place the end of the freefall wind drift line on the opening point indicated by the wind drift indicators.

b. The other end of the wind drift line now indicates the exit point.

6. Jump run should be oriented directly into the wind at exit altitude to prevent lateral drift if spotting is to be primarily visual.

7. Navigational aids may be used as the primary spotting reference, but the spot should always be confirmed visually prior to exit.

J. Hazards of openings at higher altitudes

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1. As terminal velocity increases, so does the rate of change in speed from freefall to open canopy.

a. At normal opening altitude, terminal velocity is about 160 feet per second (fps) and the rate of descent under open canopy is about 15 fps; thus, the change in velocity at opening is about 145 fps.

b. By comparison, the figures for an opening at 40,000 feet MSL are 336 minus 40, or a 296 fps change in velocity in the same period of time.

c. At 60,000 feet MSL the change in velocity is even more striking: 543 minus 64, or 479 fps.

2. Because of the higher terminal velocity at the higher altitudes—

a. It is clear that an inadvertent opening can cause serious injury as result of the greater opening shock experienced.

b. In addition, the equipment may not be able to withstand the load without damage.

3. Even if a skydiver were not injured and the equipment not damaged, he or she would still face an extended period of exposure to the extreme cold at altitude.

4. Another hazard of a canopy opening at higher altitude is hypoxia.

Section 6-8: Camera flying recommendations

Contents:
A. Introduction
B. Background
C. Purpose
D. Equipment
E. Procedures
F. Considerations for filming students

A. Introduction

1. Skydiving provides a wealth of visual stimulation that can be readily captured through still and video photography.

2. Smaller and lighter cameras have made it easier and less expensive to take cameras on a jump.

3. Jumpers need to exercise caution with respect to camera flying:

a. camera equipment and its interaction with the parachute system

b. activities on the jump

c. breakoff procedures

d. special emergency procedures for camera flyers

4. Once a camera flyer has become completely familiar with the equipment and procedures of the discipline, he or she will be able to experiment and perform creatively.

B. Background

1. In the early days:

a. Early pioneer camera flyers had to solve the obvious problems presented by big, cumbersome camera equipment and parachutes.

b. Only the most experienced jumpers and photographers would brave the activity of filming others.

2. More recently:

a. Miniature digital still and video cameras appear to present less of a challenge, encouraging more jumpers to use cameras on their jumps.

b. Skydivers have become less concerned about the skill of a camera flyer jumping with their group.

C. Purpose

1. Recommendations for flying cameras should educate potential camera flyers and those making jumps with them.

2. Jumpers should realize that flying a camera is a serious decision and that it requires additional effort and attention on each jump.

D. Equipment

1. A camera flyer should consult another experienced camera flyer and a rigger before using any new or modified piece of equipment on a camera jump:

a. helmet

b. parachute

c. deployment device modification

d. camera

e. camera mount

f. flash

g. switch and mounting

h. camera suit

i. other

(1) sky surfboard or skis

(2) tubes or other freefall toys

(3) wingsuit

2. Prior to filming other skydivers, each new or additional piece of equipment should be jumped until the camera flyer is completely familiar with it and has adjusted any procedures accordingly.

3. Camera equipment

a. Small cameras are not necessarily safer to jump than larger ones.

b. Regardless of location, any camera mount should be placed and rigged with respect to the deploying parachutes.

c. All edges and potential snag areas should be covered, taped, or otherwise protected.

(1) Necessary snag points on helmet-mounted cameras should at least face away from the deploying parachute.

(2) A pyramid shape of the entire camera mounting system may deflect lines better than an egg shape.

(3) Deflectors can help protect areas that can't be otherwise modified to reduce problems.

(4) All gaps between the helmet and equipment, including mounting plates, should be taped or filled (hot glue, etc.).

(5) Protrusions, such as camera sights, should be engineered to present the least potential for snags.

(6) Ground testing should include dragging a suspension line over the camera assembly to reveal snag points.

d. Sharp edges and protrusions can injure other jumpers in the event of a collision or emergency aircraft landing.

e. Cameras mounted on a jumper's extremities need to be kept clear during deployment.

f. Camera operation devices (switches, cables) need to be simple and secure.

g. Each added piece of equipment needs to be analyzed for its potential interaction with the overall camera system and the parachute.

4. Helmets and camera mounts

a. All camera platforms, whether custom or off the shelf, should be evaluated for safety and suitability to the camera flyer's purpose.

(1) by a rigger

(2) by an experienced camera flyer

b. The helmet should provide full visibility for the camera flyer:

(1) in freefall

(2) under canopy

(3) during emergency procedures

c. Empty camera mounts should be covered and taped to prevent snags.

5. Helmet releases

a. An emergency release is recommended for camera helmets in the event of an equipment entanglement.

b. Emergency helmet releases should be easy to operate with either hand.

c. Using a reliable helmet closure or clasp that can also be used as an emergency release promotes familiarity with the system.

6. Parachute

a. Camera flyers should use a reliable parachute that opens slowly and on heading.

b. The deployment system needs to be compatible with the camera suit, if used.

c. Camera suit wings and lower connections must not interfere with the camera flyer's parachute operation handles or main bridle routing in any freefall orientation.

d. The pilot chute and bridle length must be sufficient to overcome the additional burble created by a camera suit, if worn.

e. If the camera flyer generally opens higher than the other jumpers, a slower descending canopy may help reduce traffic conflicts.

f. The camera flyer should weigh the advantages against the disadvantages of a reserve static line in the event of a partial malfunction.

(1) Advantages: could assist after a low cutaway or when disoriented during cutaway procedures

(2) Disadvantages: could deploy the reserve during instability following a cutaway, increasing the chances for the reserve entangling with the camera system, especially a poorly designed one

g. As always, proper attention to packing and maintenance, especially line stowage, helps prevent hard openings and malfunctions.

7. Recommended accessory equipment

a. audible altimeter

b. visual altimeter that can be seen while photographing

c. hook knife

E. Procedures

1. General

a. Prior to jumping, a skydiver should have enough general jump experience to be able to handle any skydiving emergency or minor problem easily and without stress.

b. A camera flyer should possess freefall flying skills well above average and applicable to the planned jump.

(1) belly-to-earth

(2) freeflying (upright and head-down)

(3) canopy formation

(4) multiple (for skysurfing, filming student training jumps, etc.)

c. A USPA C license is recommended.

d. The jumper should have made at least 50 recent jumps on the same parachute equipment to be used for camera flying,

e. The camera flyer should know the experience and skills of all the jumpers in the group.

f. Deployment:

(1) The deployment altitude should allow time to deal with the additional equipment and its associated problems.

(2) The camera flyer must remain aware of other jumpers during deployment.

g. Each camera flyer should conduct a complete camera and parachute equipment check before rigging up, before boarding the plane, and again prior to exit.

h. Camera jumps should be approached procedurally, with the same routine followed on every jump.

i. The priorities on the jump should be the parachute equipment and procedures first, then the camera equipment and procedures.

j. Introduce only one new variable (procedure or equipment) at a time.

k. A camera jump requires additional planning and should never be considered just another skydive.

2. Aircraft

a. Cameras should be worn or secured during take off and landing to prevent them from becoming a projectile in the event of sudden movement.

b. A camera flyer needs to be aware of the additional space the camera requires:

(1) Use caution when the door is opening to prevent getting hit by door components.

(2) Practice climbout procedures in each aircraft to prevent injury resulting from catching the camera on the door or other part of the aircraft.

(3) To prevent injury and damage to the aircraft, the camera flyer should coordinate with the pilot before attempting any new climbout position.

3. Exit

a. Unless the plan calls for the camera flyer to be part of the exit, he or she should remain clear of the group, being mindful of the airspace opposite the exiting jumpers' relative wind.

b. A collision can be more serious with a jumper wearing a camera helmet.

c. Student jumpers can become disoriented if encountering a camera flyer unexpectedly.

d. A tandem parachutist in command requires clear airspace to deploy a drogue.

e. Skydivers occasionally experience inadvertent openings on exit.

4. Freefall

a. The jumpers should prepare a freefall plan with the camera flyer, to include:

(1) the camera flyer's position in relation to the group

(2) any planned camera flyer interaction with the group

b. The jumpers and the camera flyer should follow the plan.

5. Exit and breakoff

a. All jumpers on the load should understand the camera flyer's breakoff and deployment plan.

b. Two or more camera flyers must coordinate the breakoff and deployment more carefully than when only one camera flyer is involved.

c. Filming other jumpers through deployment should be planned in consideration of the opening altitudes of all the jumpers involved and with their cooperation.

d. The camera flyer should maintain awareness of his or her position over the ground and deploy high enough to reach a safe landing area.

6. Deployment

a. The camera flyer must exercise added caution during deployment:

(1) to prevent malfunctions

(2) to assure an on-heading deployment and reduce the likelihood of line twist

(3) to avoid neck injury

b. New camera flyers should consult with experienced camera flyers for specific techniques to prevent accidents during deployment and inflation.

c. Malfunction, serious injury, or death could occur if the lines of a deploying parachute become snagged on camera equipment.

7. Parachute emergencies

a. The additional equipment worn for filming can complicate emergency procedures.

b. Each camera flyer should regularly practice all parachute emergency procedures under canopy or in a training harness while fully rigged for a camera jump.

c. Emergency procedure practice should include removing the helmet with either hand in response to certain malfunctions.

d. Routine emergency procedures should be practiced during every jump.

e. When to release the helmet:

(1) equipment entanglements

(2) obstacle landings (water, trees, building, power lines)

(3) whenever a dangerous situation presents itself

F. Considerations for filming students